il!"^ 


r;        i: 


FROM   THE  LIBRARY  OF 
REV.   LOUIS    FITZGERALD    BENSON.  D.  D. 

BEQUEATHED   BY  HIM  TO 

THE   LIBRARY  OF 

PRINCETON  THEOLOGICAL  SEMINARY 


Sectloii  /Ol(oQ- 


<^R^  OF  PHiff^ 


APR  23  1932 


History  of  the  Presb 
Churches  of  the  Wo? 


r./i  8F.v^\^ 


Adapted   for   use   in 
the    Class    Room 


R.  C.  REED  D.  D. 

Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  Presbyterian 
Theological  Seminary  at  Columbiay  South  Carolina ; 
author   of  **  The   Gospel  as    Taught  by    Calvin.'''* 


PHILADELPHIA 


?rbe  Mestminater  ipress 

1905 


Copyright,  1905,  by 

The  Trustees  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication  and 

Sabbath-School  Work. 


Contents 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  Introduction i 

II  Switzerland 14 

III  France 34 

IV  The  Netherlands 72 

V  Austria — Bohemia  and  iVIoravia  .     .     .  104 

VI  Scotland 126 

VII  Ireland 173 

VIII  England  and  Wales 205 

IX  The   United  States  of  America    .     .     .  232 

X  United  States  {Continued) 269 

XI  United  States  (Continued) 289 

XII  United  States  (Continued) 301 

XIII  United  States  (Continued) 313 

XIV  United  States  (Continued) 325 

XV  Canada 341 

XVI  British  Colonial  Churches       ....  357 

XVII  Missionary  Territory 373 

Appendix 389 

Index 405 


m 


History  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

Writers  sometimes  use  the  term  Presbyterian  to  cover 
three  distinct  things,  government,  doctrine  and  worship ; 
sometimes  to  cover  doctrine  and  government.  It  should 
be  restricted  to  one  thing,  namely.  Church  Government. 
While  it  is  usually  found  associated  with  the  Calvinistic 
system  of  doctrine,  yet  this  is  not  necessarily  so ;  nor  is 
it,  indeed,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  always  so.  Presbyterianism 
and  Calvinism  seem  to  have  an  affinity  for  one  another, 
but  they  are  not  so  closely  related  as  to  be  essential  to 
each  other.  They  can,  and  occasionally  do,  live  apart. 
Calvinism  is  found  in  the  creeds  of  other  than  Presby- 
terian churches  ;  and  Presbyterianism  is  found  professing 
other  doctrines  than  Calvinism.  Let  it  be  understood 
then  that  Presbyterianism  does  not  signify  any  particular 
system  of  doctrine  or  form  of  worship ;  and  that  its  only 
and  exclusive  meaning  is  a  certain  form  of  Church  gov- 
ernment. 

The  Apostolic  Church  Presbyterian.— A  complete 
history  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  must  include  the 
Church  founded  by  the  apostles.  Taking  the  govern- 
ment of  the  synagogue  as  their  model,  they  organized  the 
Church  under  very  simple  forms.  They  appointed  pres- 
byters or  elders  in  every  church,  and  committed  to  them 

I 


2         HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

its  oversight,  charging  them  to  "  take  heed  unto  .  .  . 
all  the  flock,  over  the  which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made  you 
overseers,  to  feed  the  church,"  or  to  exercise  pastoral  care 
over  it.  Some  of  these  presbyters  labored  in  word  and 
doctrine ;  others  did  not ;  but  they  all  ruled.  No  distinc- 
tion in  name,  or  qualification,  or  office  was  made  between 
them.  They  were  designated  indiscriminately  by  the  two 
titles,  bishop  and  presbyter,  and  were  all  exhorted  to  dis- 
charge the  duty  of  pastors.  All  presbyters  were  bishops, 
and  all  bishops  were  presbyters.  A  plurality  were  ap- 
pointed in  every  Christian  congregation,  and  being  of 
equal  rank  and  authority,  they  must  of  necessity  have 
exercised  their  rule  jointly.  This  is  Presbyterianism, 
reduced  to  its  simplest  elements — a  government  in  the 
hands  of  presbyters,  ruling  jointly. 

The  Church  of  the  Second  Century.— Assuming  that 
certain  letters  ascribed  to  Ignatius  are  genuine,  we  learn 
from  them  that  very  early  in  the  second  century  a  dis- 
tinction began  to  be  made  between  the  presbyters.  To 
one  in  each  church  the  title  of  bishop  was  restricted,  and 
he  was  accorded  superiority  over  the  others.  Gradu- 
ally, and  yet  very  swiftly,  the  distinction  broadened,  and 
by  the  end  of  the  second  century,  the  bishop  was  an 
officer  clearly  discriminated  in  rank  and  authority  from 
the  elder.  And  so  it  came  to  pass  that  at  an  early 
period,  out  of  the  Presbyterianism  established  by  the 
apostles,  a  certain  type  of  episcopacy  emerged.  The 
evolution  was  not  simultaneous,  however,  throughout  the 
entire  Church.  It  progressed  more  rapidly  in  some 
regions  than  in  others.  Traces  of  the  older  form  of  gov- 
ernment lingered  in  certain  places  down  to  the  fourth  and 
fifth  centuries.  It  should  also  be  noted  that  the  episco- 
pacy at   first   evolved  was    not  diocesan,  but  parochial. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

Each  particular  church,  as  that  at  Smyrna  or  Philadel- 
phia, had  its  bishop,  its  council  of  elders  and  its  board  of 
deacons.  So  far  as  our  limited  information  permits  us  to 
judge,  the  organization  of  the  Church,  during  the  second 
century,  differed  in  no  essential  from  the  organization 
which  we  find  to-day  among  the  various  bodies  of  Pres- 
byterians. The  elders  and  deacons  were  substantially  the 
same  then  as  now,  and  the  bishop  of  the  second  century 
differed  in  no  important  particular  from  the  Presbyterian 
pastor  or  bishop  of  the  twentieth  century. 

Continued  Evolution,  Resulting  in  Papacy. — The 
process  of  evolution  cannot  be  traced  in  all  of  its  details 
with  absolute  certainty, — the  sources  of  our  knowledge 
are  too  limited  and  defective;  but  the  process  can  be 
traced  with  approximate  accuracy  in  its  general  outlines. 
There  is  reason  to  think  that  the  process  of  evolution 
began  by  making  one  presbyter  in  each  congregational 
presbytery,  or  session,  permanent  moderator,  just  as  it  is 
common  in  our  day  for  this  position  to  be  assigned  to 
the  preacher,  or  teaching  presbyter  in  each  Presbyterian 
church.  The  one  selected  for  permanent  moderator 
would,  as  a  matter  of  course,  be  the  one  noted  for 
superiority  of  gifts  and  force  of  character.  On  him  very 
naturally,  and  for  the  same  reason,  would  devolve  the 
principal  care  of  the  church.  He  would  also  be  the 
medium  of  communication  between  the  different  churches, 
and  would,  therefore,  take  the  lead  in  all  matters  affect- 
ing the  common  interests  of  the  various  Christian  com- 
munities. As  heresies  and  other  disorders  began  to 
affect  these  communities,  his  position  would  grow  in 
importance,  and  his  influence  increase  in  power.  It  is  a 
well-attested  fact  that  nothing  contributed  so  much  to 
create  the  office  of  bishop  as  an  office  distinct  from  that 


4         HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  presbyter,  and  to  lift  it  to  a  position  of  supremacy  in 
the  government  of  the  Church,  as  the  demand  for  speedy 
and  stringent  discipHne  to  suppress  rising  disorders.  The 
testimony  of  Jerome,  who  hved  a.  d.  340-420,  is  that 
"  before  factions  were  introduced  into  rehgion  by  the 
prompting  of  the  devil,  the  churches  were  governed  by  a 
council  of  presbyters ;  but  as  soon  as  each  man  began  to 
consider  those  whom  he  had  baptized  as  belonging  to  him- 
self and  not  to  Christ,  it  was  decided  throughout  the 
world  that  one  elected  from  among  the  elders  should  be 
placed  over  the  rest,  so  that  the  care  of  the  church  should 
devolve  on  him,  and  the  seeds  of  schism  be  removed." 
Again  he  says :  "  When  afterwards  one  presbyter  was 
elected  that  he  might  be  placed  over  the  rest,  this  was 
done  as  a  remedy  against  schism,  that  each  man  might 
not  drag  to  himself,  and  thus  break  up  the  Church  of 
Christ."  Bishop  Lightfoot  quotes  approvingly  these 
testimonies  of  Jerome,  and  adds  :  "  To  the  dissensions  of 
Jews  and  Gentile  converts,  and  to  the  disputes  of  gnostic 
false  teachers,  the  development  of  episcopacy  may  be 
mainly  ascribed."  The  motive  which  prompted  a  de- 
parture from  scriptural  simplicity  was  the  belief  that,  for 
the  preservation  of  sound  doctrine  and  good  order,  it  was 
necessary  to  concentrate  power  in  a  few  hands,  that  dis- 
cipline might  be  more  effectively  administered.  This 
motive  continued  to  operate,  along  with  less  worthy  ones, 
until  parochial  episcopacy  was  changed  into  diocesan,  and 
that  into  the  papacy.  The  city  bishop  was  exalted  above 
the  country  bishop,  the  metropolitan  above  the  city  bishop, 
the  patriarch  above  the  metropolitan,  and  finally  the 
patriarch  of  Rome  was  exalted  as  Pope  over  all. 

The     Extinction    of    Presbyterianism.— The    lifting 
up   of  the  bishop  meant  the  letting  down  of  the  pres- 


INTRODUCTION  5 

byter.  The  latter,  having  been  robbed  of  the  title  which 
defined  his  scriptural  function,  was  soon  robbed  of  his 
function  itself.  Ceasing  to  be  a  bishop  in  name,  he  ceased 
to  be  an  overseer  in  reality.  He  was  degraded  to  the  posi- 
tion of  a  servant,  and  had  his  sphere  of  labor  assigned 
him  by  his  bishop.  Excluded  from  all  part  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  church  he  was  deputed  by  the  bishop  to 
preach  and  administer  the  sacraments.  About  this  junc- 
ture the  idea  of  the  sacerdotal  character  of  the  ministry 
was  introduced  into  the  church,  and  in  keeping  with  this 
idea  the  presbyter's  name  was  curtailed  to  priest.  As  the 
priestly  idea  gained  ground,  a  magical  virtue  was  attrib- 
uted to  the  sacraments,  and  preaching  was  for  this  reason 
discredited,  and  fell  into  neglect.  Henceforth  the  princi- 
pal business  of  the  priest  was  to  hear  confessions,  pre- 
scribe penance  and  celebrate  mass.  Not  only  did  the 
ruling  elder  fall  out  by  the  way,  but  the  teaching  elder 
also  disappeared,  and  in  their  place  arose  a  monstrous 
creation  of  a  degenerate  church — a  so-called  priest,  usurp- 
ing the  functions  of  the  one  Mediator,  and  claiming  that 
by  the  use  of  a  set  phrase,  he  could  change  a  little  wafer 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  the  living  and  glorified 
Christ.  When  all  traces  of  the  New  Testament  presbyter 
had  vanished,  there  was  but  little  of  Presbyterianism 
left. 

Church  Polity  and  the  Reformers.— The  government 
of  the  Church  was  not  made  a  matter  of  profound  and 
prayerful  investigation  by  the  early  reformers.  The  inti- 
mate relation  between  doctrine  and  polity  was  not  sus- 
pected, and  consequently  men  who  were  ready  to  die  for 
purity  of  doctrine  were  unconcerned  about  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  Church.  The  uniformity  of  doctrine  through- 
out the  countries  that  had  separated  from  Rome  was  re- 


6        HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

markable.  The  explanation  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  the  Bible  had  been  exalted  to  the  position  of  supreme 
arbiter,  and  devout  souls  everywhere  carried  their  doc- 
trinal problems  to  the  same  tribunal  and  received  the 
same  answer.  But  it  did  not  occur  to  them  that  the  Bible 
had  a  message  for  them  on  the  subject  of  the  visible  form 
of  Christ's  kingdom  of  grace.  Church  government  was 
left  to  take  care  of  itself,  or  to  be  shaped  and  determined 
largely  by  circumstances  of  time  and  place. 

State  of  the  Case  in  England.— Here  the  Church  re- 
tained the  organization  in  substantially  the  same  form 
that  it  had  worn  for  centuries.  This  was  due,  no  doubt, 
to  the  controlling  hand  of  royalty  in  shaping  the  early 
history  of  the  English  Reformation.  There  were  two 
simultaneous  movements,  one  political,  the  other  religious. 
The  latter  concerned  itself  with  doctrine  and  worship, 
and  left  the  former  to  determine  the  source  of  ecclesias- 
tical power,  and  the  methods  of  ecclesiastical  administra- 
tion. The  king  supplanted  the  Pope,  and  Parliament 
made  a  few  modifications  demanded  by  this  change  of 
head.  But  the  government  of  the  Church  remained  an 
absolutism,  all  power  emanating  from  the  head,  and  ad- 
ministered, as  formerly,  through  "  archbishops,  bish- 
ops, their  chancellors  and  commissaries,  deans,  arch- 
deacons, and  all  other  ecclesiastical  officers  depending  on 
that  hierarchy."  The  English  Church  has  set  for  itself  a 
difficult  task.  Having  cast  overboard  its  infallible  Pope, 
and  having  accepted  the  Bible  as  the  only  infallible  rule 
of  faith  and  practice,  it  has  spent  some  three  hundred 
years  in  trying  to  prove  that  its  lofty  structure  of  gov- 
ernment, with  the  king  at  the  top,  is  based  on  the  word 
of  God.  It  would  have  been  a  marvelous  thing,  if  god- 
less sovereigns,  shaping  the  polity  of  the  Church  with  un- 


INTRODUCTION  7 

fettered  hand,  solely  in  the  interests  of  their  own  selfish 
ends,  had  shaped  it  along  the  lines  prescribed  in  the 
Bible.  The  great  reformers  of  the  sixteenth  century 
wisely  claimed  for  it  no  other  merit  than  present  con- 
venience. It  was  an  organization  prepared  to  hand,  and 
fitted  into  the  framework  of  the  state.  The  Pope  had 
claimed  to  be  head  over  both  church  and  state.  When 
his  supremacy  was  renounced,  the  person  to  fill  the 
vacancy  could  be  no  other  than  the  king.  To  reform 
radically  the  government  of  the  Church,  would  mean  a 
revolution  of  the  monarchy.  The  leaders  of  the  religious 
movement  had  no  thought  of  this.  They  had  no  scru- 
ples of  conscience  in  perpetuating  a  form  of  Church  gov- 
ernment for  which  no  higher  warrant  could  be  pleaded 
than  political  expediency. 

Luther  and  the  Lutherans.— As  early  as  15  20,  Luther, 
in  his  "  address  to  the  German  nobles,"  denied  the  sacer- 
dotal character  of  the  clergy,  teaching  that  they  and  the 
laity  constituted  one  spiritual  estate,  and  that  ordination 
to  the  ministry  was  nothing  more  than  the  designation 
of  certain  persons  to  be  the  official  servants  of  the  people. 
He  asserted  the  doctrine  of  the  universal  priesthood  of 
believers,  and  claimed  on  this  ground  the  right  of  God's 
people  to  govern  themselves,  to  elect  their  own  pastors, 
and  along  with  them  to  exercise  discipline.  But  Luther 
was  deterred  by  the  circumstances  of  the  times  from  at- 
tempting to  put  into  practice  these  abstract  doctrines. 
He  said  the  Germans  were  too  rough  and  turbulent  to 
have  placed  in  their  hands  the  power  of  self-government. 
The  Peasants'  War,  and  the  efforts  of  fanatics  to  break 
down  the  authority  of  civil  magistrates,  and  to  transfer 
all  power  to  the  hands  of  the  "saints,"  strengthened 
Luther  in  his  conviction  that  the  times  were  not  ripe  for 


8         HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

giving  to  God's  people  the  rights  which  he  in  theory 
claimed  for  them.  For  the  present,  he  believed  it  was 
his  duty  to  magnify  the  functions  of  the  civil  ruler,  and 
to  encourage  the  German  princes  to  take  a  liberal  part  in 
the  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs.  By  the  Treaty 
of  Augsburg,  1555,  it  was  granted  to  each  secular  ruler 
to  determine  what  should  be  the  religion  of  his  state. 
The  Lutherans  accepted  this  arrangement  without  a  mur- 
mur, and  in  doing  so  conceded  to  the  civil  power  suprem- 
acy over  the  Church.  A  theory  was  devised  to  harmon- 
ize this  concession  with  the  doctrine  of  the  people's  right 
to  rule  themselves  ecclesiastically.  The  theory  was  that 
in  an  emergency  the  rulers  were  bound  to  take  the  lead, 
not  as  rulers,  however,  but  as  chief  members.  Unfor- 
tunately for  the  theory,  the  rulers  did  not  merely  take 
the  lead,  but  they  took  the  whole  control,  and  when  the 
emergency  was  over,  they  continued  to  exercise  it. 

Various  Forms  of  Polity  Among  the  Lutherans. — 
Lutheran  reformers  generally  did  not  attach  much  im- 
portance to  the  way  in  which  the  Church  should  be  gov- 
erned. They  would  have  been  content  with  the  system 
which  Rome  had  built  up,  if  only  it  could  have  been 
made  subservient  to  the  propagation  of  evangelical  doc- 
trine. "  If  the  existing  bishops,"  they  said,  "  would 
cease  from  their  enmity  to  the  gospel,  and  embrace  the 
true  doctrine,  we  might  patiently  endure  their  authority." 
The  same  thought  finds  expression  in  the  Augsburg 
Confession :  '<  Now  our  meaning  is  not  to  have  rule 
taken  from  the  bishops  ;  but  this  one  thing  only  is  re- 
quested at  their  hands,  that  they  would  suffer  the  gospel 
to  be  purely  taught,  and  that  they  would  relax  a  few  ob- 
servances which  cannot  be  held  without  sin."  In  Sweden 
the  Episcopal  form  was  left  standing ;  in  Denmark  the 


INTRODUCTION  9 ' 

king  appointed  superintendents,  who  exercised  episcopal 
functions ;  in  most  of  the  German  states,  the  general 
management  of  the  Church  was  placed  in  the  hands  of 
consistories,  courts  made  up  of  clergy  and  civil  jurists, 
but  with  supreme  control  still  lodged  with  the  princes. 
Says  a  Lutheran  writer,  **  The  Lutheran  Church,  be- 
lieving the  form  of  Church  government  to  belong  en- 
tirely to  the  accidents  of  the  Church,  is  ready  to  adapt 
its  form  to  changing  circumstances.  Hence  under  mon~ 
archies,  the  Church  is  Episcopal ;  under  aristocracies, 
Presbyterian  ;  and  under  republics,  Congregational." 

Presbyterianism  Approximated  in  Hesse. — The 
Landgrave  Philip,  who  ruled  over  the  German  principal- 
ity of  Hesse,  was  a  very  zealous  reformer,  and  was  ready 
to  give  effect  to  any  measures  that  might  strengthen  the 
Protestant  cause.  He  had,  for  a  time,  as  his  chief  ad- 
viser in  ecclesiastical  matters,  Francis  Lambert,  a  con- 
verted Franciscan.  Guided  by  Lambert,  the  Synod  of 
Homberg,  1526,  devised  a  Church  constitution  of  an 
original  and  liberal  character.  It  defined  a  particular 
church  as  an  organization  of  true  believers  who  were 
willing  to  unite  in  a  common  subjection  to  the  rules  of 
discipline.  The  church  was  to  choose  its  pastors,  and 
these  were  to  exercise  discipline  to  the  extent  of  exclud- 
ing the  unworthy  from  fellowship.  The  constitution 
provided  for  a  synod  composed  of  bishops  and  delegates 
from  each  church,  to  meet  annually,  to  which  all  com- 
plaints and  doubtful  questions  were  to  be  submitted. 
This  was  the  nearest  approach,  in  the  matter  of  Church 
government,  which  had  been  made  up  to  that  time,  to 
the  principles  laid  down  in  Scripture.  It  designed  to 
give  effect  to  the  self-governing  power  of  the  people — a 
power  which  Luther  had  already  said  belonged  to  them. 


lo       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Luther,  however,  opposed  it,  not  on  theoretical  grounds, 
but  because  he  deemed  it  impracticable,  owing  to  the  ig- 
norance and  rudeness  of  those  for  whom  it  was  intended. 
Luther's  opposition  and  other  causes  prevented  its  going 
into  full  effect. 

Zwingli  and  His  Followers.— Zwingli,  though  a  co- 
temporary  of  Luther,  carried  on  his  work  absolutely  in- 
dependent of  the  great  Saxon  reformer.  In  many 
respects  he  was  more  thoroughgoing  than  Luther,  and 
followed  the  word  of  God  fearlessly  in  his  warfare  on  the 
corruptions  of  Romanism.  But  clear-sighted  as  he  was, 
he  failed  utterly  to  grasp  the  true  conception  of  the 
Church  as  a  body  distinct  from  and  independent  of  the 
state,  with  its  own  code  of  laws  and  officers  of  govern- 
ment. He  merged  the  Church  in  the  state,  and  placed 
ecclesiastical  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  same  Council 
that  ruled  the  city  of  Zurich.  He  believed  in  barring 
the  unworthy  from  the  communion,  but  taught  that  this 
duty  pertained  to  the  Christian  magistracy.  The  only 
privilege  granted  to  the  people  was  the  privilege  of  ob- 
jecting to  the  pastors  who  were  presented  to  them  by  the 
civil  authority.  CEcolampadius  and  others  of  Zwingli's 
followers  tried  to  give  to  the  people  some  power  in  the 
government  of  the  Church ;  but  ultimately  the  model 
furnished  by  Zwingli  at  Zurich  prevailed  in  nearly  all  the 
Swiss  cantons. 

Presbyterianism  and  the  First  Reformers.— It  is  evi- 
dent from  the  foregoing  review  that  in  no  part  of  Chris- 
tendom did  the  first  generation  of  reformers  set  them- 
selves, with  intelligent  and  persistent  effort,  to  restore  the 
lost  polity  of  the  Church.  They  went  back  to  the  Bible 
for  purity  of  doctrine,  and  for  a  measure  of  purity  in 
worship,  but  they  did  not  go  there  to  find  a  pattern  after 


INTRODUCTION  ii 

which  to  reform  the  government  of  the  Church.  They 
did  not  feel  any  urgent  necessity  for  reformation  in  this 
respect.  Church  government  was  not  rated  by  them  as 
a  matter  of  great  importance.  Their  first  concern  was  to 
escape  from  the  tyranny  of  the  papacy,  and  to  give  the 
people  once  again  the  pure  evangel.  Some  were  pre- 
pared to  accept  any  form  of  government  that  might 
seem  most  convenient ;  others  were  willing  to  leave  the 
matter  largely  to  be  determined  by  the  exigencies  of  the 
future  ;  and  yet  others  were  disposed  to  define  no  visible 
form  for  the  Church,  but  treat  religion  merely  as  a  de- 
partment of  the  state. 

John  Calvin,  the  Restorer  of  Presbyterianism.— The 
same  great  reformer,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  our 
logical  system  of  doctrine,  is  entitled  to  recognition  as 
the  author  of  our  restored  system  of  government.  He 
seems  to  have  felt,  almost  from  the  first  moment  of  his 
casting  in  his  lot  with  the  Reformation,  that  there  was 
urgent  need  for  a  settled  and  well-ordered  plan  of  rule 
in  the  house  of  God.  He  perceived  that  the  fruits  of 
evangelical  preaching  could  not  be  gathered  up  and  con- 
served without  drawing  a  distinct  boundary  line  between 
the  Church  and  the  world ;  that  the  testimony  of  holy 
living  could  not  be  given  in  behalf  of  the  gospel  without 
the  exercise  of  discipline ;  and  that  the  power  of  the  Re- 
formed faith  could  not  be  made  effective  for  aggressive 
evangelism  without  a  clearly-defined  and  independent 
organization.  The  kingdom  of  Christ,  while  not  of  this 
world,  is  nevertheless  in  this  world,  and  is  here  for  pur- 
poses of  conquest ;  it  must  therefore  have  visible  shape, 
and  in  order  to  have  this  its  limits  and  powers  must  be 
distinctly  marked  out.  John  Calvin  went  directly  to  the 
Bible  for  the  model.     He  found  it  in  the  simple  presby- 


12       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

terial  forms  prescribed  and  practiced  by  the  apostles. 
He  devoted  about  one  sixth  of  his  great  work,  "  Insti- 
tutes of  the  Christian  ReHgion,"  to  the  subject  of  church 
government ;  and  if  he  did  not  trace  all  the  Hues  with 
fair  accuracy,  he  at  any  rate  discovered  the  essential 
principles.  Having  discovered  these,  he  set  himself  with 
all  the  pertinacity  of  his  inflexible  will  to  give  them  prac- 
tical effect.  It  was  his  effort  to  establish  church  gov- 
ernment that  brought  him  into  collision  with  the  civil 
authorities.  Had  he  been  content  merely  "  to  preach  the 
word  .  .  .  reprove,  rebuke,  exhort  with  all  long- 
suffering  and  doctrine,"  the  current  of  his  life  might  have 
flowed  smoothly.  It  was  his  attempt  to  make  the  eccle- 
siastical court  an  independent  tribunal,  free  from  state 
control,  that  brought  on  the  conflict ;  and  it  was  in  this 
conflict  that  the  lofty  heroism  of  his  character  was 
brought  to  Hght.  For  fifteen  years  he  waged  a  doubtful 
warfare,  often  putting  his  life  in  jeopardy,  and  only  nine 
years  before  his  death  did  he  achieve  the  final  victory. 
Great  as  was  the  service  which  he  rendered  to  the  Re- 
formed Church  as  a  theologian,  not  less  great  was  the 
service  which  he  rendered  as  an  ecclesiastic. 

Influence  of  Restored  Presbyterianism.— In  restoring 
the  scriptural  rule  of  presbytery,  Calvin  gave  the  laity  a 
fuU  half  share  in  the  government  of  the  Church.  One 
effect  of  this  was  to  bring  preacher  and  people  together, 
and  dissipate  the  idea  of  the  sacerdotal  character  of  the 
clergy.  Another  effect  was  to  teach  men  to  govern 
themselves,  and  thus  to  start  a  movement  for  the  over- 
throw of  all  tyrannies — a  movement  which  has  not  yet 
spent  itself.  The  influence  of  Calvin  on  the  political 
history  of  many  nations  is  recognized  by  the  leading 
historians  of  our  day.     This  influence  was  due  not  alone 


INTRODUCTION 


13 


to  the  system  of  doctrine  which  he  taught,  but  also,  and 
perhaps  we  might  say  chiefly,  to  the  repubhcan  form  of 
government  which  he  provided  for  the  Church.  "  He 
vindicated,"  says  Fisher,  "  the  right  of  the  Church  to 
perform  its  own  functions  without  the  interference  of  the 
state.  The  Church  thus  became  the  nursery  of  liberty. 
Wherever  Calvinism  spread— in  England,  Scotland, 
Holland,  or  France — men  learned  to  defend  their  rights 
against  civil  rulers."  While  it  is  not  contended  that 
Calvin  was  personally  favorable  to  the  largest  popular 
liberty,  yet  it  is  noticeable  that  the  freest  nations  to-day 
are  those  in  which  his  teachings  took  deepest  root  and 
yielded  the  largest  harvest. 


CHAPTER  II 
SWITZERLAND 

This  land,  not  more  famous  for  the  picturesque  gran- 
deur of  its  mountains  than  for  the  lofty  heroism  of  its 
freedom-loving  people,  was  chosen  of  God  to  be  the 
birthplace  and  the  cradle  of  modern  Presbyterianism. 
France  furnished  the  man,  but  Switzerland  furnished  the 
home. 

Geneva. — It  was  here  in  Geneva  that  the  first  church 
of  modern  times  was  organized  under  the  Presbyterian 
form.  The  form  was  not,  indeed,  pure  and  ideal  Presby- 
terianism, but  it  embodied  most,  if  not  all  of  the  essential 
principles  of  this  form  of  government. 

William  Farel,  a  Frenchman  of  robust  and  resolute 
character,  was  the  first  to  preach  the  Reformed  doctrines 
in  Geneva.  The  Romish  priests  on  learning  of  the  pres- 
ence of  Farel,  took  immediate  steps  to  rid  the  city  of  his 
pestiferous  influence.  Honoring  him  with  the  title  of 
devil,  they  very  soon  had  their  emissaries  handling  him 
with  violence  and  defiling  him  with  spittle.  The  brave 
preacher  escaped,  to  return  again  in  two  years,  and 
defend  the  truth  of  God  against  all  comers.  He  held  his 
ground  this  time  and  was  permitted  to  see  the  citizens, 
assembled  in  general  council,  in  the  Cathedral  of  St. 
Peter,  lift  up  their  hands  and  swear  "  that  they  wished  to 
live  in  accordance  with  the  holy  scriptural  law."  This 
oath  was  taken  on  the  24th  day  of  May,  1 5  36,  and  marks 
the  first  decisive  victory  for  the  Reformed  faith. 

14 


SWITZERLAND  15 

Calvin's  Arrival. — Later  on,  in  that  same  year  of  1536, 
Calvin  essayed  to  pass  through  Geneva.  He  was  on  liis 
way  to  seek  refuge  for  a  second  time  in  the  city  of  Basel. 
He  had  planned  a  quiet  life  of  literary  labor,  a  life  con- 
genial to  his  taste,  and  suited  to  his  reserved  and  shrink- 
ing disposition.  Farel  heard  of  his  being  in  the  city. 
He  believed  that  Calvin  was  just  the  man  to  aid  him  in 
his  arduous  and  perilous  task  of  making  the  Reformation 
thorough  and  permanent  in  Geneva.  He  hastened  to  see 
him,  and  lay  the  matter  before  him.  Calvin  was  not  at 
all  inclined  to  such  a  sphere  of  labor.  Farel,  growing 
more  and  more  earnest,  finally  invoked  a  curse  on  him  if 
he  persisted  in  his  refusal.  Calvin's  conscience  was  aroused 
and  took  sides  with  Farel,  and  then,  as  ever,  he  put  incli- 
nation aside,  and  yielded  to  that  stern  monitor.  From 
the  first,  he  and  Farel  set  before  themselves,  as  the  aim 
of  their  efforts,  practical  righteousness.  They  sought 
reformation  of  doctrine  in  order  to  reformation  of  life. 
Taking  the  people  at  their  word,  they  began,  not 
only  to  teach  them  that  law  of  God,  by  which  they  had 
sworn  to  order  their  lives,  but  also  to  constrain  them  to  keep 
their  oath.  Calvin  prepared  a  Confession  of  Faith.  The 
Civil  Council  demanded  that  all  the  citizens  should  swear 
allegiance  to  it.  The  magistrates  were  first  required  to 
take  the  oath.  Those  who  refused  were  dismissed.  Each 
magistrate  was  required  to  administer  the  oath  to  all  the 
people  in  his  district.  Those  who  resisted  were  ex- 
communicated and  banished.  The  effort  to  carry  this 
severe  measure  into  effect  was  a  practical  failure.  Oppo- 
sition to  the  zealous  reformers  grew.  The  Civil  Council 
changed  sides,  and  favored  those  who  advocated  lax 
doctrine.  It  enjoined  the  preachers  to  administer  the 
communion   to  all,  irrespective   of  character.     This   the 


1 6       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

preachers  positively  refused  to  do.  The  result  was  their 
banishment  when  they  had  labored  together  only  two 
years. 

Calvin's  Return.— After  a  short  while  the  people 
repented.  They  preferred  Calvin  and  his  rigid  dis- 
cipline to  the  wild  disorder  that  sprang  up  and  developed 
in  his  absence.  Of  the  four  magistrates  who  were  at  the 
head  of  affairs  when  the  two  reformers  were  banished, 
one  was  killed  while  attempting  to  escape  arrest,  one  was 
beheaded,  the  other  two  fled  and  were  sentenced  to  per- 
petual exile.  The  distracted  city  sent  a  deputation  to 
invite  Calvin  to  return.  It  required  much  solicitation  to 
overcome  his  reluctance.  At  length  he  consented,  but 
only  on  condition  that  the  people  should  submit  to  the 
exercise  of  discipline.  He  entered  the  city  again  in 
September,  1541,  amidst  general  rejoicing.  At  once  he 
took  steps  in  connection  with  the  civil  authorities  for  the 
revision  of  the  ecclesiastical  system.  A  number  of  ordi- 
nances were  drawn  up ;  and  on  the  20th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1 541,  two  thousand  citizens  assembled  in  general 
council  and  approved  these  ordinances  by  a  majority 
vote.  This  marked  another  decisive  victory  for  the  Refor- 
mation, and  that  day  has  been  called  the  birthday  of 
modern  Presbyterianism. 

The  Government  of  Geneva. — There  was  a  blending 
of  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical  machinery  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  it  a  little  difficult  to  discriminate  between 
the  two.  The  republic  had  a  civil  polity  before  Calvin 
came  to  the  city.  It  consisted  of  a  General  Council,  com- 
posed of  all  males  over  twenty-one  years  of  age.  This 
was  the  primary  source  of  all  authority  in  the  state.  It 
assembled  in  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Peter,  at  the  tolling  of 
the  bell,  while  its  meetings  were  announced  by  criers  and 


SWITZERLAND  17 

the  blowing  of  trumpets  at  the  street  corners.  This 
council  elected  four  syndics,  or  magistrates,  and  these  ap- 
pointed a  council  of  twenty-five,  called  the  Lesser  Coun- 
cil. There  were  two  other  councils,  one  consisting  of 
two  hundred  members,  and  the  other  of  sixty.  The  lat- 
ter was  designed  to  discharge  ordinarily  the  functions  of 
the  General  Council,  and  thus  prevent  the  disorders 
which  so  often  attended  the  assembling  of  this  large  and 
democratic  body.  The  relation  of  these  several  councils 
to  each  other  was  not  very  clearly  defined,  but  the  meas- 
ure of  power  exercised  by  each  was  in  inverse  ratio  to 
its  size.  Nothing  could  be  considered  by  the  General 
Council  which  had  not  previously  been  considered  by  the 
council  of  two  hundred;  nor  anything  by  this  that 
had  not  been  brought  before  the  council  of  sixty ;  nor 
anything  by  this  that  had  not  been  examined  and  ap- 
proved by  the  Lesser  Council.  Hence  the  power  of  the 
whole  state  was  largely  concentrated  in  the  smallest 
body,  and  the  government  was  practically  an  oli- 
garchy. 

Formation  of  the  Church. — Calvin  had  no  thought  of 
organizing  a  church  entirely  separate  from  the  state. 
His  views  of  the  relation  of  church  and  state  were 
largely  colored  by  the  teachings  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  his  aim  was  the  establishment  of  a  theocracy.  Church 
and  state  were  to  have  their  distinct  spheres,  but  were  to 
cooperate  in  the  promotion  of  the  same  end,  namely,  the 
glory  of  God  through  the  righteousness  of  the  people. 
With  such  an  aim,  it  was  inevitable  that  he  should  con- 
cern himself  with  the  civil  as  well  as  the  ecclesiastical 
polity.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  he  had  much  to  do  in  re- 
vising, modifying  and  enlarging  the  body  of  civil  laws. 
As  the  two  powers  were  copartners,  working  together 


1 8       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

for  the  same  end,  the  machinery  of  each  must  be  adapted 
to  the  other. 

Ordinances  Pertaining  to  the  Church. — We  cannot 
better  set  forth  the  character  of  these  ordinances  than  by 
transcribing  a  few  of  the  more  important.  The  civil  au- 
thorities prefaced  the  adoption  of  them  with  the  following 
declaration :  "  In  the  name  of  the  most  mighty  God,  we 
syndics,  with  the  Great  and  Small  Councils  of  Geneva, 
with  our  people  assembled  by  sound  of  the  trumpet,  and 
the  great  bell,  following  our  ancient  customs,  having  con- 
sidered that  it  is  a  thing  worthy  of  commendation  above 
all  other  that  the  doctrine  of  the  holy  gospel  of  our  Lord 
God  be  conserved  well  in  purity,  and  the  Christian  Church 
maintained  accordingly,  also  that  youth  in  time  to  come 
be  well  and  faithfully  instructed,  and  the  hospital  be  or- 
dered in  good  state  for  the  sustentation  of  the  poor,  the 
which  cannot  be  except  there  be  established  a  certain  rule 
and  manner  to  live,  by  the  which  every  state  may  under- 
stand the  duty  of  his  office.  For  this  cause  it  seemed 
good  to  us  that  the  spiritual  government,  such  as  God 
hath  showed  unto  us  and  instituted  by  his  word,  be 
brought  into  good  form,  to  have  place  and  to  be  ob- 
served by  us,  and  we  have  ordained  and  established  to 
follow  and  to  keep  in  our  own  town  and  territory  the  ec- 
clesiastical polity  following,  which  is  taken  out  of  the 
gospel  of  Jesus  Christ : 

"  Church  Officers. — First  of  all,  there  are  four  orders  of 
officers,  which  our  Lord  hath  instituted  for  the  govern- 
ment of  his  Church,  that  is  to  say,  pastors,  doctors,  elders, 
otherwise  named  commissioners  for  the  seniory,  and 
fourthly  deacons.  If  we  will  have  a  church  well  ordered 
and  kept  in  the  purity,  we  must  observe  this  form  of 
government : 


SWITZERLAND  19 

"  I .  As  concerning  pastors,  which  the  Scriptures  name 
sometime  watchmen,  and  sometime  ministers,  their  offices 
are  to  declare  the  word  of  God,  to  teach,  to  admonish,  to 
exhort,  to  reprove  as  well  publicly  as  privately,  to  minis- 
ter sacraments,  and  to  do  brotherly  correction  with  the 
elders,  or  commissioners. 

"  2.  The  proper  office  of  doctors  is  to  teach  the  faithful 
with  sound  doctrine  to  the  end  that  the  purity  of  the  gos- 
pel be  not  corrupted  by  ignorance,  or  wicked  opinions ; 
nevertheless  according  as  things  be  disposed  in  these 
days,  we  do  comprehend  them  under  this  title,  to  be 
aides  and  instruments  to  conserve  the  doctrine  of  God,  so 
that  the  church  be  not  desolate  for  fault  of  pastors  and 
ministers,  but  to  use  a  word  more  intelligible  we  shall 
call  them  the  order  of  scholars. 

"  3.  The  office  of  the  elders  is  to  take  heed  and  to  watch 
of  the  demeanor  and  behavior  of  all  and  every  of  the 
people,  to  admonish  lovingly  those  which  they  see  fall, 
or  lead  a  dissolute  life,  or  if  it  be  needful  to  make  the  re- 
port, or  to  do  brotherly  correction,  and  that  shall  be  com- 
monly done  by  the  company  that  shall  be  thereto  appointed. 

"  4.  There  hath  been  always  two  sundry  kinds  or  sorts 
of  officers  in  the  ancient  Church,  the  one  were  depu- 
ties to  receive,  to  deliver  and  to  conserve  the  goods 
of  the  poor,  as  well  daily  alms,  as  possessions,  stipends 
and  pensions  ;  the  other  to  feed  and  oversee  the  sick,  and 
to  minister  the  portion  of  the  poor." 

Peculiarities  of  Organization. — Such  were  the  officers 
chosen  for  the  Church  in  Geneva.  They  were  with 
slight  exceptions  the  same  in  name  and  in  function  with 
the  officers  which  at  the  present  time  are  found  in  all 
Presbyterian  churches.  We  find  no  room  for  the  office 
of  doctor,  and  think  that  the  terms  "pastors  and  teach- 


20       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

ers,"  as  used  in  the  Scriptures,  apply  to  incumbents  of 
the  same  office.  Probably  this  office  was  created  in  the 
Church  of  Geneva  for  the  reason  that  it  was  proposed  to 
found  a  school  with  special  reference  to  raising  up  a  min- 
istry, and  this  school  was  to  be  under  the  strictest  super- 
vision of  the  Church.  The  teachers  in  this  school  were 
to  be  selected  by  the  ministers,  approved  by  the  council, 
and  subject  to  the  ecclesiastical  discipline.  The  deacons 
were  divided  into  two  classes,  but  this  was  merely  for 
convenience,  based  on  an  arrangement  already  in  exist- 
ence for  looking  after  a  hospital,  in  which  the  sick,  the 
aged,  the  poor  and  the  orphans  were  cared  for. 

Election  and  Appointment  of  Officers.— A  candidate 
for  the  ministry  was  examined  by  the  company  of  pas- 
tors. If  approved  by  them,  he  was  presented  to  the 
council.  If  he  passed  a  satisfactory  examination  before 
this  body,  he  was  given  a  testimonial  and  was  required 
to  preach  a  sermon  before  the  people.  If  he  was  not  ac- 
ceptable to  the  people,  they  could  veto  his  ordination  as 
pastor,  but  were  required  to  show  good  cause  for  their 
dissatisfaction.  If  approved  by  the  people,  he  was  in- 
ducted into  office,  and  then  made  to  take  a  very  compre- 
hensive oath  of  loyalty  to  the  city  and  its  institutions. 

No  one  could  be  received  into  the  office  of  doctor  ex- 
cept by  approval  of  the  ministers.  He  must  also  be  pre- 
sented to  the  council  with  witnesses,  and  be  examined 
before  two  of  the  seniors. 

The  elders  were  chosen,  two  from  the  small  council, 
four  from  the  council  of  sixty,  and  six  from  the  council 
of  two  hundred.  They  all  were  nominated  by  the  small 
council  in  conference  with  the  ministers,  and  their  nomi- 
nation confirmed  by  the  council  of  two  hundred.  An 
oath  of  fideUty  to  the  duties  of  their  office,  and  of  loyalty 


SWITZERLAND  21 

to  the  laws  of  Geneva  was  exacted  of  them.  They  were 
on  probation  for  one  year,  and  at  the  end  of  the  year 
were  presented  to  the  seniory,  and  if  no  cause  could  be 
shown  to  the  contrary  they  were  continued  in  office. 

The  council  was  to  choose  the  deacons  in  the  same 
manner  in  which  the  elders  were  chosen,  and  in  making 
choice  they  were  to  "  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Paul  touching 
deacons  in  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy,  the  third  chapter; 
and  the  Epistle  to  Titus,  the  first  chapter." 

The  Consistory. — There  was  only  one  ecclesiastical 
court  in  Geneva,  and  this  was  called  the  consistory.  It 
was  composed  of  the  pastors  of  the  city,  six  in  number, 
and  the  twelve  elders  chosen  by  the  council  of  two  hun- 
dred. In  selecting  the  elders,  the  council  was  to  see  to 
it  that  *'  there  be  of  them  in  every  part  of  the  city,  that 
their  eyes  may  be  over  all  that  is  ordained  or  done." 
An  ordinance  required  the  elders  '*  to  gather  once  a  week 
with  the  ministers,  which  shall  be  on  Thursday,  to  see  if 
there  be  any  disorder  in  the  church,  and  to  talk  together 
for  the  remedy  thereof,  when  and  how  as  shall  be  most 
convenient."  They  had  no  authority  to  constrain  any 
one  to  appear  before  them,  but  the  council  deputed  one 
of  their  number  to  cite  any  one  whom  the  consistory 
thought  deserving  of  censure.  If  he  refused  to  come, 
they  could  report  him  to  the  council,  which  would  take 
order  as  it  saw  fit.  There  was  an  ordinance  detailing 
very  minutely  the  sins  of  which  the  consistory  should 
take  notice.  If  the  offense  were  of  such  character  as  to 
merit  nothing  more  than  admonition,  the  consistory 
could  dispose  of  it.  But  if  the  offense  were  of  such 
gravity  as  to  call  for  excommunication,  the  consistory 
could  pronounce  the  sentence,  but  must  report  their 
action  to  the  council. 


2  2       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Other  Regulations. — A  commission  of  four  was  ap- 
pointed, two  by  the  magistrates,  and  two  by  the  minis- 
ters from  the  congregation,  to  visit  every  parish  once  in 
the  year,  to  inquire  into  the  faithfulness  of  the  ministers. 
The  commissioners  w^ere  to  investigate  touching  the 
soundness  of  the  doctrines  which  they  preached,  the 
character  of  the  Hves  which  they  led,  and  the  diligence 
with  which  they  discharged  the  duty  of  preaching  and 
visiting  the  sick.  If  the  commissioners  found  any  serious 
blemish  in  any  of  the  ministers,  they  were  to  make  report 
of  the  same  to  the  seniory,  to  the  end  that  the  seniory 
might  •'  proceed  according  to  reason."  Geneva  had  suf- 
fered enough  from  the  despotism  of  an  irresponsible 
priesthood,  and  they  would  take  no  risk  of  placing  the 
same  yoke  on  their  necks  again.  It  is  not  to  be  pre- 
sumed, however,  that  this  jealous  watchfulness  over  the 
lives  and  conduct  of  the  ministers  was  without  the  cordial 
assent  of  these.  They  organized  a  constant  vigilance 
over  each  other's  ministry.  "  The  Venerable  Company," 
as  it  was  called,  was  a  council  of  all  the  pastors  of  Geneva. 
It  could  not  exercise  any  official  authority,  but  it  met 
monthly  for  the  purpose  of  mutual  admonition  and  help. 
It  was  also  charged  with  the  examination  of  those  seek- 
ing admission  to  the  ministry. 

The  Mother  Church. — Such,  in  brief  outline,  was  the 
Church  of  Geneva,  organized  under  the  guiding  hand  of 
the  illustrious  Calvin,  but  that  hand  was  by  no  means  free 
from  the  constraint  of  a  jealous  civil  authority.  It  was 
not  just  what  Calvin  would  have  preferred,  and  had  it 
been,  it  still  would  have  been  far  from  our  ideal.  We 
may  note,  however,  four  fundamental  principles  which  it 
embodied :  First.  A  church  organization  entirely  dis- 
tinct from,  if  not  independent  of,  the  state.     Second.  A 


SWITZERLAND  23 

revival  of  the  offices  of  ruling  elder  and  deacon  in  their 
scriptural  form.  Third.  Government  in  the  hands  of  a 
court  composed  of  teaching  and  ruling  elders.  Fourth. 
Unity  of  the  Church  recognized  by  placing  several 
churches  under  the  discipline  of  one  court.  These  are 
the  constituent  elements  of  Presbyterianism  ;  and  rightly, 
therefore,  do  we  name  this  the  Mother  Church  of  all 
modern  Presbyterian  churches. 

Its  Relation  to  the  Civil  Power.— It  is  a  matter  for 
regret,  of  course,  that  the  fair  form  of  our  Mother  Church 
should  have  been  so  marred  by  too  close  a  relationship 
to  the  state.  They  two  were  joined  in  an  unholy,  and 
in  an  unhappy  wedlock.  The  lordship  belonged  to  the 
state,  the  Church  being  the  weaker  vessel.  This  was 
not  so  manifest  during  Calvin's  lifetime,  because  of  his 
overshadowing  personality.  He  was  a  host  in  himself, 
and  in  every  conflict  between  Church  and  state  as  to  the 
bounds  of  their  respective  jurisdictions,  his  powerful  in- 
fluence was  thrown  on  the  side  of  the  Church.  He  was, 
by  an  unwritten  law,  permanent  president  of  the  Vener- 
able Company,  and  in  any  matter  in  dispute  that  touched 
his  conscience,  his  indomitable  will  usually  carried  the 
day.  But  a  brief  analysis  of  some  of  the  ordinances  al- 
ready quoted  will  make  it  plain  that  the  Church  was 
hampered  at  every  turn  by  the  civil  power.  The  candi- 
date for  the  ministry  was  presented  to  the  Lesser  Coun- 
cil, and  it  rested  with  the  council  to  pronounce  the  final 
word  as  to  his  fitness  for  office,  and  to  determine  whether 
he  should  be  permitted  to  try  his  gifts  before  the  people. 
The  elders  and  deacons  were  elected  and  appointed  to 
office  by  the  council  of  two  hundred,  and  the  people  had 
not  even  the  power  of  vetoing  the  appointment.  While 
the  consistory  could  exercise  discipline  over  the  members 


24       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  the  church,  and  punish  with  spiritual  censures,  the 
Lesser  Council  had  the  right  of  review,  and  sometimes 
attempted  to  nullify  the  findings  of  the  spiritual  court. 
In  cases  of  aggravated  sin,  or  dangerous  heresy,  the  civil 
power  supplemented  the  censures  of  the  consistory  with 
bodily  pains  and  penalties.  Thus  it  happened  in  the 
case  of  Servetus,  who  not  only  denied  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  but  made  himself  very  offensive  by  his  coarse 
denunciation  of  the  orthodox  faith.  As  Calvin  has  been 
loaded  with  much  odium  because  of  his  part  in  the  de- 
struction of  Servetus,  we  may  pause  long  enough  to  ob- 
serve that  he  was  to  blame,  along  with  the  other  leaders 
of  the  Reformation,  for  holding  to  an  error  common  to 
the  age.  It  had  been  the  doctrine  of  the  Romish  Church 
for  centuries  that  heresy  was  the  greatest  of  all  crimes, 
because  it  destroyed  souls,  and  that  the  secular  power 
should  put  the  heretic  out  of  the  way.  The  reformers 
inherited  this  error,  and  very  few  of  them  escaped  from 
it.  The  Romish  Church  had  condemned  Servetus  to 
death,  and  if  he  had  not  made  his  escape,  Calvin  would 
never  have  had  the  opportunity  to  put  this  blot  on  his 
fame.  He  believed  that  Servetus  deserved  death,  and 
volunteered  to  prosecute  him  before  the  civil  tribunal. 
The  case  went  against  Servetus,  and  then  Calvin  tried  to 
save  him  by  persuading  him  to  renounce  his  errors ;  fail- 
ing in  this  he  did  what  he  could  to  have  the  form  of  the 
death  sentence  mitigated.  But  after  all  is  said  that  can 
be  said  by  way  of  palliation,  it  is  still  to  be  deplored  that 
the  noble  Christian  men  of  that  day  could  not  have  seen 
with  clearer  vision  the  proper  relation  between  the  things 
which  belong  to  Caesar  and  those  which  belong  to  God. 

Rights  of  Conscience. — Calvin  and  his  coadjutors  had 
slight   respect  for  the  rights  of  conscience.     They  left 


SWITZERLAND  25 

nothing,  in  fact,  to  its  decision,  but  tried  by  a  rigid  disci- 
pline, covering  all  departments  of  life,  and  entering  into 
the  most  minute  details  of  conduct,  to  constrain  all  to  live 
by  rules  which  they  had  prescribed.  Proclamations, 
published  by  sound  of  trumpet,  laid  down  injunctions 
and  prohibitions  of  a  most  remarkable  kind,  and  obedience 
was  enforced  by  severe  penalties.  In  one  of  these  proc- 
lamations we  read  such  specifications  as  the  following  : 
"  Item,  that  no  manner  of  person,  of  what  estate,  quality, 
or  condition  soever  they  be,  men,  nor  women,  shall  wear 
any  chains  of  gold,  or  silver ;  but  those  who  have  been 
accustomed  to  wear  them,  shall  put  them  off,  and  wear 
them  no  more  after  this  proclamation,  upon  pain  of  three- 
score shillings  for  every  time.  Item,  that  no  woman 
shall  wear  above  two  rings  upon  their  fingers,  saving  that 
upon  the  day  of  their  marriage,  they  may  wear  more, 
and  the  day  after  likewise,  upon  pain  for  every  time  three- 
score shillings.  Item,  that  no  manner  of  person,  whatso- 
ever they  be,  making  bride-ales,  banquets,  or  feasts,  shall 
have  above  three  courses,  or  services  to  the  said  feasts, 
and  to  every  course,  or  service,  not  above  four  dishes, 
and  yet  not  excessive,  upon  pain  of  threescore  shillings 
for  every  time,  fruit  excepted."  In  a  proclamation  issued 
on  the  28th  of  February,  1560,  and  published  by  sound 
of  trumpet,  it  is  enjoined  that  "  every  person  shall  send 
their  children  to  the  catechism  to  be  instructed  and 
taught,  upon  pain  of  three  shillings  when  they  shall  be 
found  lacking.  Item,  that  no  manner  of  person  be  so 
hardy  to  swear  by  the  name  of  God,  under  pain  the  first 
time  to  kiss  the  ground ;  the  second  time,  to  kiss  the 
ground  and  pay  three  shillings ;  the  third  time,  to  pay 
forty  shillings  and  three  days  in  prison ;  the  fourth  time, 
to  be  banished  the  town  a  year  and  a  day." 


2  6       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

These  proclamations  were  issued  in  the  name  of  <<  our 
most  redoubted  senior  syndics  and  council  of  Geneva." 
They  were  civil  and  not  ecclesiastical  enactments ;  and 
suggest  to  us  that,  while  the  Church  was  held  in  the  close 
embrace  of  the  state,  the  state  itself  was  a  unique  body. 
It  sought,  as  perhaps  no  other  civil  power  ever  sought, 
upright  living  as  the  ultimate  aim  of  all  its  endeavors.  It 
freely  adopted  the  Reformed  faith,  and  the  citizens  in 
their  general  council  took  an  oath  to  live  according  to 
God's  law.  It  is  true  that  many  were  not  in  sympathy 
with  this  movement,  and  many  who  thought  they  could 
abide  by  it,  found  that  their  hearts  were  not  equal  to  it. 
But  the  majority  stood  by  Calvin,  and  used  the  machinery 
of  the  state,  not  merely  to  make  men  profess  orthodoxy, 
but  to  make  them  live  holily.  The  severity  of  discipline 
cannot  be  justified,  but  it  can  be  said  in  behalf  of  it  that 
it  helped  to  transform  Geneva  from  a  city  of  deservedly 
bad  repute  into  a  city  famed  for  purity  of  life.  We  say 
helped,  for  it  must  ever  be  borne  in  mind  that  Calvin  and 
those  who  wrought  with  him  laid  the  greatest  possible 
stress  upon  the  transforming  power  of  preaching  and 
other  forms  of  religious  instruction.  An  ordinance  re- 
quired that  "  upon  the  Sundays  there  shall  be  morning 
sermons  at  the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Gerveis,  also 
at  the  hour  accustomed,  sermons  through  all  the  parishes. 
At  noon  the  catechism,  that  is  to  say,  instructions  for  the 
small  children,  in  three  churches,  and  at  three  o'clock 
likewise  sermons  in  all  the  churches.  Upon  the  week 
days,  over  and  besides  a  sermon  in  every  parish,  also 
there  shall  be  sermons  at  the  head  churches,  Monday, 
Wednesday  and  Friday  at  four  of  the  clock  in  the  morn- 
ing." 

Struggles  and  Triumph. — When   Calvin   returned  to 


SWITZERLAND  27 

Geneva,  after  having  been  banished,  he  began  the  war- 
fare just  where  he  had  laid  it  down.  As  we  have  seen, 
he  and  Farel  were  contending  for  the  right  of  the  Church 
to  bar  the  unworthy  from  the  communion  table.  They 
suffered  a  defeat.  Calvin  never  for  one  moment  thought 
of  yielding  the  point.  The  ordinance  bearing  on  this 
point  was  ambiguous,  and  possibly  it  was  so  drawn 
intentionally.  It  empowered  the  consistory  to  excom- 
municate, but  required  that  the  action  should  be  reported 
to  the  council.  What  was  the  meaning  of  this  require- 
ment ?  One  object  was  that  the  council  might  follow  up 
the  spiritual  censure  with  corporal  punishment  if  it  saw 
fit.  Did  it  further  mean  that  the  council  might  modify, 
or  reverse  the  sentence  of  the  consistory?  The  council 
claimed  this  right,  but  Calvin  would  not  concede  it. 
Through  fifteen  years  he  contended  for  the  Church's 
independence  of  the  state  in  the  exercise  of  disciplinary 
power.  Much  and  bitter  opposition  was  arrayed  against 
him.  More  than  once  his  life  was  in  serious  jeopardy. 
Finally,  a  crisis  was  precipitated.  Calvin  preached  a 
farewell  sermon,  expecting  banishment  on  the  morrow. 
But  the  council  yielded,  and  from  that  day  till  his  death, 
in  1564,  Calvin  remained  master  of  the  situation. 

The  Academy  of  Geneva. — In  1558,  this  famous 
school  was  founded,  and  Theodore  Beza  was  appointed 
its  first  rector.  He  stood  second  only  to  Calvin,  dis- 
tinguished as  he  was  for  high  birth,  courtly  manners, 
elegant  culture,  deep  piety  and  effective  eloquence.  The 
first  year  of  the  academy's  existence,  the  students  num- 
bered eight  hundred.  They  represented  nearly  all  the 
nations  of  northern  and  western  Europe.  The  influence 
of  this  school  in  disseminating  the  Reformed  doctrines  was 
incalculable.     It  is  interesting  to  know  that  while  changes 


28       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  all  kinds  have  passed  over  the  city,  modifying  and 
transforming  its  diversified  life,  this  school  has  lived  on  to 
our  day.  Unfortunately,  however,  it  no  longer  ministers 
to  the  spread  of  an  orthodox  faith,  but  rather  to  the  spread 
of  rationalism.  The  spring  has  become  poisoned  at  the 
fountain,  and  the  streams  that  flow  out  bear  the  germs  of 
spiritual  disease  and  death. 

Later  History. — When  Calvin  was  removed  by  death, 
and  the  precedents  established  by  his  dominating  power 
were  no  longer  respected,  the  Church  of  Geneva  became 
more  and  more  helpless  in  the  toils  of  the  civil  law. 
Zwingli's  views  grew  in  popularity  until  the  Church  lost 
even  the  shadow  of  autonomy  and  became  merely  a 
department  of  the  state.  The  constitution  adopted  in 
Calvin's  time  remained  with  slight  modifications  until  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  But  all  the  while  the 
administration  of  the  laws,  in  respect  to  purity  of  faith 
and  morals  was  becoming  more  lax,  and  whatever  changes 
were  made  were  unfavorable  to  the  vigor  and  inde- 
pendence of  the  Church.  Geneva  soon  ceased  to  be  the 
pride  of  Reformed  Christendom,  and  the  center  of  its 
most  powerful  and  most  beneficent  influences. 

Recent  Revival. — No  land  owed  more  to  Geneva  than 
Scotland.  Through  John  Knox,  and  afterwards  through 
Andrew  Melville,  Geneva  furnished  to  that  land  the  type 
of  doctrine  and  form  of  church  government  that  have 
contributed  so  much  to  the  glory  of  its  history.  It  was 
meet  that  in  her  hour  of  need,  Geneva  should  receive  a 
blessing  in  return.  That  blessing  came  in  the  visit  of 
Robert  Haldane  in  1816.  He  spent  two  years  there  in 
close  contact  with  the  theological  students  of  the  uni- 
versity. They  met  him  daily  in  his  parlor,  where  he  ex- 
pounded to  them  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  by  the 


SWITZERLAND  29 

blessing  of  God  infused  a  warm  evangelical  spirit  into 
many  lives  that  knew  religion  merely  as  a  form.  Among 
these  were  some  men  of  brilliant  gifts,  Cesar  Malan, 
Merle  d'Aubigne,  Francois  Gaussen.  They  soon  found 
themselves  out  of  sympathy  with  the  established  church. 
By  and  by,  there  was  an  open  rupture.  In  1830  the  So- 
cietie  Evangehque  was  formed  for  the  purpose  of  "  spread- 
ing sound  apostolic  doctrine  throughout  Switzerland 
and  France."  It  carries  on  an  extensive  missionary  work, 
and  is  supported  by  voluntary  contributions  from  Chris- 
tians in  various  parts  of  the  world,  who  are  interested  in 
its  noble  aims.  This  society  founded  a  new  theological 
school  in  direct  rivalry  with  the  old  academy  that  owed 
its  origin  to  Calvin. 

Present  Condition.— Changes  in  the  laws  have  brought 
the  Church  more  completely  under  the  power  of  the  state. 
The  Venerable  Company,  which,  along  with  the  con- 
sistory, had  been  intrusted  with  the  general  direction  of 
affairs,  was  in  1834  deprived  of  its  authority  over  the 
academy;  in  1847,  it  was  deprived  of  the  privilege  of 
sitting  in  judgment  on  the  qualification  of  candidates  for 
the  ministry.  In  the  same  year  the  Confession  of  Faith 
was  abolished.  So  that  now  the  features  of  Calvin's 
Church  are  so  marred  that  he  would  hardly  recognize  it. 
A  minister  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  recently  made  a 
visit  there  and  spent  the  Sabbath.  "  I  had  the  privilege," 
he  writes,  "  of  witnessing  an  ordination  in  the  church  of 
St.  Peter.  Under  her  democratic  regime,  Geneva  has 
departed  so  widely  from  Calvin's  idea  of  the  ministry  that 
a  young  man  who  has  passed  his  college  examinations, 
and  those  of  the  consistory  does  not  require  to  be  or- 
dained by  a  classis  to  be  eligible  for  a  pastoral  charge. 
The  Church  being  treated  as  but  a  department  of  the 


30       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

public  administration,  the  state  takes  no  cognizance  of 
the  candidate's  personal  beliefs,  competency  for  the  work 
of  the  ministry  being  presumably  guaranteed  by  his  tes- 
timonials. The  ministerial  office  is  thus  looked  at  not  in 
reference  to  its  spiritual  character  or  objects,  but  rather 
as  to  its  social  and  moral  functions ;  and  as  connected 
with  certain  semisecular  duties  which  the  minister  is 
expected  to  discharge."  This  state  of  affairs  led  to  the 
formation,  in  1849,  of  the  Free  Evangelical  Church  of 
Geneva.  As  yet  it  is  but  a  handful  of  corn  on  the  top 
of  the  mountain,  but  it  may  in  time  to  come  wave  like 
Lebanon.  In  1896  it  had  only  four  parishes  with  six 
hundred  and  eighty-seven  members. 

The  Church  of  Neuchatel. — It  was  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  bold  and  impetuous  Farel  that  the  Reforma- 
tion was  established  in  Neuchatel.  He  preached  a  ser- 
mon on  the  23d  of  October,  1530,  in  the  cathedral 
church  which  swept  the  hearts  of  the  people  like  a  breath 
from  heaven.  Under  the  prompting  of  a  resistless  en- 
thusiasm they  seized  mattocks,  hatchets  and  hammers, 
and  proceeded  to  smash  the  images,  statues,  altars  and 
paintings  in  the  church.  They  threw  the  shattered  frag- 
ments from  the  top  of  the  rock  on  which  the  church 
was  built.  A  few  days  after  this  a  vote  was  taken  to 
decide  whether  Neuchatel  should  remain  under  the 
power  of  the  Pope,  or  shaking  off  his  yoke  declare  itself 
free  to  serve  Christ  according  to  the  teachings  of  the 
New  Testament.  Great  excitement  prevailed  while  the 
vote  was  taken  in  silence.  The  parties  were  so  evenly 
balanced  that  it  was  not  till  the  vote  was  counted  that 
one  could  conjecture  with  any  approach  to  certainty  on 
which  side  the  victory  would  lie.  The  count  of  the  vote 
revealed   a    majority  of  eighteen    for   the   Reformation. 


SWITZERLAND  31 

This  sealed  the  fate  of  the  papal  party,  and  placed  Neu- 
chatel  permanently  in  the  ranks  of  reform. 

Hostility  of  Church  and  State. — One  thing  distin- 
guished the  Reformation  in  Neuchatel  from  that  in  all 
the  other  cantons  of  Switzerland.  In  the  others  the 
heads  of  civil  government  sympathized  with  the  move- 
ment, and  Church  and  state  ultimately  became  identified, 
with  all  power  in  the  hands  of  the  magistrates.  In  this 
canton,  while  the  majority  carried  the  day  for  reform,  the 
civil  power  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  Catholics.  Thus 
the  churches  acted  independently  of  the  state.  Farel 
and  the  other  pastors  met  regularly  in  the  city  of  Neu- 
chatel, and  being  organized  under  the  name  of  the 
"  Company  of  Pastors,"  governed  the  Church.  This  sys- 
tem continued  down  to  1848,  when  a  synod,  composed 
of  pastors  and  laymen  took  the  place  of  the  Company 
of  Pastors.  Some  twenty  years  later  the  civil  govern- 
ment enacted  laws  destructive  of  the  Church's  autonomy, 
declaring  every  citizen  of  the  state  a  member  of  the 
Church  and  entitled  to  vote,  and  further  declaring  every 
minister  eligible  to  office  in  the  Church,  no  matter  what 
his  belief.  This  led  in  1873  to  a  secession,  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  Evangelical  Church  of  Neuchatel.  It  now 
numbers  twenty-eight  congregations,  and  ten  thousand, 
five  hundred  and  seventy-one  communicants. 

The  Canton  of  Vaud. — Only  three  of  the  thirteen 
cantons  of  Switzerland  adopted  clearly-defined  Presby- 
terian forms  of  government,  on  becoming  reformed. 
These  were  French  speaking,  and  the  Reformed  doctrines 
were  brought  to  them  from  France.  While  the  others 
were  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  and  had  much  in  common 
with  the  three  distinctively  Presbyterian  cantons,  they 
accepted  the  Reformation  under  the  dominating  influence 


32       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  Zwingli,  and,  in  the  relation  which  they  estabHshed 
between  Church  and  state,  gave  expression  to  his 
views. 

Lausanne.— The  Church  in  this  capital  city  of  the 
Pays  de  Vaud  was  founded  by  Pierre  Viret.  He  was 
intimately  associated  with  both  Calvin  and  Farel.  These 
three  constituted  a  noble  triumvirate,  to  whom  the  Pres- 
byterian churches  of  all  lands  are  deeply  indebted.  They 
somewhat  supplemented  each  other,  and  together  exhib- 
ited an  aggregate  of  gifts  and  graces  that  is  rarely  wit- 
nessed. Calvin  was  the  profound  scholar  and  acute 
logician,  Farel  the  impassioned  and  indomitable  preacher, 
and  Viret  the  amiable  and  captivating  counselor. 

Relation  to  Bern. — Shortly  after  the  establishment  of 
the  Church  in  Lausanne,  the  Vaudois  passed  under  the 
control  of  the  Bernese.  For  more  than  two  centuries 
their  ecclesiastical  affairs  were  governed  after  the  fashion 
of  the  government  of  Bern.  In  1798  the  Vaudois  were 
liberated  and  formed  the  canton  of  Vaud,  and  entered 
the  Helvetic  Confederacy.  The  canton  established  a 
national  Protestant  Church,  based  on  a  profession  of  faith 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  interpreted  according  to 
the  principles  of  the  Reformed  evangehcal  communion. 

Rupture.— By  changes  in  the  government  the  civil 
power  more  and  more  encroached  on  the  prerogatives  of 
the  Church.  In  1845,  those  who  held  evangelical  views 
and  labored  for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the  Church,  de- 
cided to  submit  no  longer.  They  separated  from  the 
national  Church,  and  organized  the  Free  Church  of  the 
canton  of  Vaud.  It  now  numbers  forty-three  congre- 
gations, one  hundred  and  fifty-seven  ministers  and  four 
thousand,  eight  hundred  and  ninety-four  members.  It 
has  a  flourishing  school  at  Lausanne,  in  which  the  able 


SWITZERLAND  33 

and  devout  scholar,  Alexander  Vinet,  shone  for  a  time 
with  brilliant  luster. 

Present  Condition  and  Future  Prospects. — Our  re- 
view of  the  history  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  of 
Switzerland  indicates  that  instead  of  healthful  develop- 
ment, there  has  been  sad  degeneracy.  The  noble  labors 
of  Calvin,  Beza,  Farel  and  Viret  failed  to  achieve  perma- 
nent results  worthy  of  their  illustrious  names.  At  the 
end  of  three  and  a  half  centuries  the  cause  for  which 
they  wrought  is  represented  by  the  three  independent 
churches  of  Geneva,  Neuchatel  and  Vaud.  The  estab- 
lished churches,  which  are  the  legal  successors  of  their 
organizations,  no  longer  represent  the  evangelical  prin- 
ciples which  were  the  inspiration  of  their  lives. 

The  outlook  for  the  future  of  the  independent  churches 
is  not  very  hopeful.  Feeble  in  numbers,  and  limited  in 
resources,  they  have  to  struggle  against  the  strong  cur- 
rents of  opposition  which  result  from  the  secularized 
Christianity  of  the  state  establishments.  But  God  can 
take  the  weak  things  to  confound  the  mighty,  and  there 
is  always  ground  to  hope  for  the  success  of  those  who 
are  striving  to  uphold  his  honor  and  promote  his  truth. 
It  is  gratifying  to  note  that  the  three  churches  have 
recently  formed  a  federation  to  look  after  their  common 
interests. 


CHAPTER  III 
FRANCE 

Much  in  the  history  of  France  furnished  hope  that  the 
Reformed  doctrines  would  find  ready  acceptance  and 
rapid  development  in  that  land. 

Independent  Spirit  of  the  Galilean  Church.— The 
Church  in  France  had  ever  been  impatient  of  the  tyran- 
nical exercise  of  power  by  the  papacy.  From  time  to 
time,  it  put  forth  effective  protest  in  the  name  of  the 
Galilean  liberties.  Phillip,  the  Fair,  had  been  the  first  of 
European  monarchs  to  humble  the  haughty  pretensions 
of  the  Pope,  and  to  give  an  effectual  check  to  his  tem- 
poral power.  He  had  been  nobly  sustained  in  his  bold 
attitude  of  resistance  by  all  classes  of  his  subjects,  includ- 
ing the  clergy. 

The  Revolting  Sects. — In  southern  France,  numerous 
sectaries  had  achieved  minor  reforms,  long  before  the 
great  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Al- 
bigenses  attracted  attention  as  early  as  the  beginning  of 
the  twelfth  century.  Though  accused,  and,  perhaps 
justly,  of  holding  some  views  that  exhibited  their  kinship 
with  the  gnostics  of  an  earlier  day,  yet  they  both  taught 
and  practiced  a  purity  of  life  in  beautiful  contrast  with 
the  corrupt  lives  of  Romish  priests  and  monks. 

A  little  later  in  the  same  century,  Peter  Waldo  led  a 
movement  which  resulted  in  giving  birth  to  a  numerous 
sect,  named  from  him,  Waldenses.  They  were  free  from 
the  errors  of   the  Albigenses,  and  rivaled  them  in  the 

34 


FRANCE  35 

preaching  of  the  primitive  faith  and  in  the  exhibition  of 
a  pure  and  lovely  morality.  They  put  the  authority  of 
the  Scriptures  in  place  of  that  of  the  Pope,  or  the  Church, 
and  did  what  they  could  to  give  the  v^ord  of  God  free 
course.  Both  these  sects  were  made  to  feel  the  heavy 
hand  of  Rome,  more  heavy  at  that  time  against  the  true 
disciples  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  than  it  had  been  even 
when  the  worst  of  the  pagan  emperors  sat  on  the  throne. 
The  Albigenses  were  apparently  exterminated,  but  it  is 
not  to  be  doubted  that  their  lessons  and  hves  continued 
to  exert  an  influence  after  they  had  passed  from  the 
scene.  The  Waldenses  were  crushed  and  mangled,  tor- 
tured and  tormented,  but  they  lived  on,  and  continue  to 
live. 

The  Reforming  Councils. — During  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury several  councils  met  for  the  avowed  purpose  of  re- 
forming the  Church.  France  furnished  to  these  councils 
some  distinguished  leaders,  who,  with  sublime  courage, 
and  great  force  of  intellect,  dealt  powerful  blows  at  the 
gross  abuses  of  the  papacy.  They  failed  to  reform,  but 
they  did  much  to  break  the  spell  of  superstitious  rever- 
ence that  made  the  people  prefer  to  be  slaves  rather  than 
risk  perdition  by  incurring  papal  anathemas. 

Jacques  Lefevre. — Eight  years  before  Luther  made 
such  a  noise  with  his  hammer  on  the  door  of  the  Witten- 
berg Church,  Jacques  Lefevre  published  in  France  the 
evangelical  doctrines  that  afterwards  became  the  watch- 
word of  all  reformers.  He  also  exalted  the  Bible  to  its 
proper  place  of  supreme  authority  in  matters  of  faith 
and  practice.  Many  hearts  gave  heed  to  his  teaching, 
and  a  group  of  earnest  souls  began  to  speak  often  one  to 
another  about  the  urgent  need  of  purer  doctrines  and 
purer  lives. 


36       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

These  historical  phenomena  gave  promise  of  a  glad 
welcome,  and  a  speedy  harvest  for  the  Reformed  faith. 
The  promise  was  in  a  measure  fulfilled. 

Early  Attitude  of  the  King. — In  15 15,  Francis  I.  came 
to  the  throne.  He  was  young,  handsome  and  high- 
spirited.  He  displayed  a  warm  interest  in  the  classical 
culture  which,  emanating  from  Italy,  was  spreading 
throughout  Europe.  By  a  generous  patronage,  he  drew 
men  of  learning  and  genius  to  his  court,  and  gave  them 
cordial  welcome  notwithstanding  many  of  them  had  out- 
grown the  absurd  dogmas  of  the  Romish  Church.  He 
looked  with  suspicion,  however,  upon  any  change  in 
Church  polity  that  threatened  revolution  in  the  state. 
Believing  that  unity  in  faith  was  essential  to  the  unity  of 
the  realm,  he  would  countenance  no  such  radical  meas- 
ures of  reform  as  might  involve  the  total  overthrow  of 
the  papal  system.  At  the  same  time  he  had  no  sym- 
pathy with  the  Sorbonne,  the  Parliament,  and  the  monks 
in  their  narrow  spirit  of  intolerance.  He  protected  Ber- 
quin,  a  distinguished  courtier,  whom  the  dignitaries  of 
the  Church  sought  to  destroy;  he  honored  Erasmus; 
and  even  went  so  far  as  to  invite  Gerard  Roussel  to 
preach  the  Reformed  doctrines  in  Paris.  His  sister  Mar- 
garet was  still  more  kindly  disposed  toward  the  reformers 
and  their  evangelical  preaching.  She  embraced  many  of 
the  new  doctrines,  and  showed  public  favor  to  those  who 
were  outlawed  by  the  Church,  notably  to  the  illustrious 
Calvin.  But  with  all  these  things  in  favor  of  the  spread 
of  the  Reformed  faith,  there  were  powerful  opposing 
forces.  The  queen  mother,  Louise  of  Savoy,  was  in- 
tensely hostile,  and  with  her  was  Duprat,  the  able  prime 
minister  of  the  king,  who  for  his  zeal  in  resisting  and 
repressing  heresy  was   rewarded   with   a  cardinal's   hat. 


FRANCE  37 

Moreover  the  University  of  Paris,  the  Parliament,  and  al- 
most the  entire  body  of  the  clergy  were  ready  to  exert 
themselves  to  the  utmost  to  maintain  the  old  order. 

Change  in  Attitude  of  the  King. — Every  influence  pos- 
sible was  brought  to  bear  on  the  king  to  determine  him 
to  the  policy  of  intolerance.  Arguments  were  used  to 
excite  his  fears  as  to  the  stabihty  of  his  throne  in  case 
any  favor  were  shown  to  the  religious  innovators. 
Whether  or  not  moral  suasion  alone  could  have  won  him 
to  the  side  of  bigotry,  cannot  be  known.  It  was  not  left 
to  moral  suasion  alone,  but  the  indiscretion,  and  rash 
zeal  of  certain  reformers  brought  to  bear  a  more  power- 
ful influence.  The  zealots  posted  on  the  walls  along  the 
streets  and  even  on  the  door  of  the  royal  bedchamber 
placards  denouncing  in  no  measured  terms  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass.  This  was  a  crime  above  all  crimes,  the  very 
extreme  of  sacrilege  in  the  eyes  of  all  devout  papists. 
The  king  was  outraged  along  with  the  rest,  not  alone  at 
the  blasphemy  of  the  placards,  but  also  at  the  audacity 
that  could  invade  the  privacy  of  his  sleeping  apartments. 
Eighteen  heretics  were  burned  at  the  stake  by  way  of 
avenging  the  outrage,  and  the  king  showed  his  devotion 
to  the  Catholic  faith  by  gracing  the  occasion  with  his 
presence.  For  political  reasons  he  still  courted  the 
Lutherans  of  Germany.  He  wished  to  use  them  to 
weaken  the  power  of  his  great  adversary,  Charles  V,  with 
whom  he  was  involved  in  almost  constant  wars.  He 
offered  to  the  Lutherans  as  an  apology  for  his  violence 
toward  the  reformers  of  his  own  kingdom  the  slanderous 
statement  that  they  were  of  a  different  spirit  from  the 
Protestants  of  Germany,  being  in  fact  disorderly  and 
fanatical  anabaptists.  It  was  partly  for  the  purpose  of 
refuting  this  slander  that  Calvin  published  in   1536  the 


38       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

first  edition  of  his  Institutes.  In  the  dedication  of  this 
book,  which  is  addressed  to  •<  His  Most  Christian  Majesty, 
Francis,  King  of  France,"  he  put  forth  one  of  the  most 
eloquent  defenses  of  his  suffering  fellow  Christians  that 
the  genius  of  man  could  frame.  In  concluding  it  he  ex- 
pressed the  hope  that  the  king  might  be  won  to  look 
with  favor  upon  his  poor  afflicted  subjects.  "  But,"  he 
adds,  "  if  your  ears  are  so  preoccupied  with  the  whispers 
of  the  malevolent,  as  to  leave  no  opportunity  for  the 
accused  to  speak  for  themselves,  and  if  those  outrageous 
furies,  with  your  connivance,  continue  to  persecute  with 
imprisonments,  scourges,  tortures,  confiscations  and 
flames,  we  shall  indeed,  like  sheep  destined  to  the  slaugh- 
ter, be  reduced  to  the  greatest  extremities.  Yet  shall  we 
in  patience  possess  our  souls,  and  wait  for  the  mighty 
hand  of  the  Lord,  which  undoubtedly  will  in  time  ap- 
pear, and  show  itself  armed  for  the  deliverance  of  the 
poor  from  their  affliction  and  for  the  punishment  of  their 
despisers,  who  now  exult  in  such  security."  Calvin's 
noble  words  were  wasted  on  deaf  ears.  Francis  grew 
more  intolerant,  and  put  his  royal  power  at  the  service 
of  those  who  scrupled  at  no  methods,  and  shuddered  at 
no  cruelty  in  their  persistent  purpose  to  crush  out  the 
new  doctrines.  He  suffered  the  Pope  to  wage  a  crusade 
of  merciless  violence  against  his  unoffending  Waldensian 
subjects.  "  The  result  of  his  attitude  in  relation  to  the 
Reformation  was  that,  a  few  years  after  his  death,  his 
country  was  plunged  into  civil  wars,  during  which  it  be- 
came, not  the  arbiter  but  the  prey  of  Europe,  and  its 
soil  the  frightful  theater  of  the  battle  of  sects  and  nations. 
From  such  wars  it  had  no  respite  until  his  dynasty  per- 
ished in  blood  and  mire." 

Growth  of  Reform. — Notwithstanding  the  strenuous 


FRANCE  39 

efforts  at  suppression,  revolt  against  the  Church  continued 
to  gain  strength,  and  the  numbers  of  those  who  embraced 
evangehcal  doctrines  rapidly  increased.  The  movement 
was  greatly  aided  from  Geneva,  where  Calvin  had  taken 
refuge  in  1536.  From  the  printing  presses  of  the  Swiss 
city,  Bibles  and  other  books  were  sent  into  France 
Calvin  gave  the  reformers  the  constant  benefit  of  his 
counsels  and  encouragement.  Preachers  trained  by  him 
were  sent  into  all  parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  records 
show  that  at  least  one  hundred  and  twenty-one  min- 
isters were  sent  from  the  Church  in  Geneva  into  France 
in  the  eleven  years  between  1555-66.  Many  of  high 
social  standing  and  of  great  consideration  embraced  the 
Reformed  faith. 

Henry  II  and  Catharine  de'  Medici. — Francis  died  in 
1547,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  II.  A  few 
years  before,  Henry  had  married  Catharine  de'  Medici. 
She  was  the  niece  of  Pope  Clement  VII,  and  through 
his  diplomacy  the  marriage  was  contracted.  Guizot  says 
that  Catharine  was  Clement's  "  fatal  gift  to  France." 
Had  Henry  needed  any  prompting  to  pursue  with  vigor 
the  policy  adopted  by  his  father  toward  the  Reformation, 
this  wily,  and  wicked  Italian  woman  would  have  fur- 
nished it.  King  and  queen  were  of  one  mind  in  their 
hostility  to  the  rising  spirit  of  revolt  against  the  papacy, 
but  their  efforts  at  repression  were  unavailing. 

Beginning  of  Protestant  Organization. — The  fruits  of 
the  Reformed  teaching  were  slow  in  crystallizing  into 
organic  form.  But  in  1555,  just  eight  years  after  Henry  II 
came  to  the  throne,  the  first  Reformed  church  was  organ- 
ized in  Paris.  The  circumstances  were  interesting.  Ac- 
cording to  a  custom,  now  of  long  standing,  those  who 
had  given  up   Rome,  met  in  private  for  worship.     La 


40       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Ferriere,  at  whose  house  they  met,  had  an  infant  which 
he  wished  to  consecrate  to  God  in  the  ordinance  of  bap- 
tism. He  was  totally  averse  to  soiling  its  fair  young 
brow  with  the  mixture  of  spittle  and  salt  used  by  the 
papists  in  this  ordinance.  He  wished  the  baptism  to  be 
administered  in  the  pure  and  simple  apostolic  form. 
How  to  obtain  this  was  the  question.  The  little  band  of 
secret  worshipers  solved  the  difficulty  by  organizing  them- 
selves into  a  church  and  electing  one  of  their  own  number 
to  the  office  of  pastor.  Fortunately  for  them,  they  had  a 
young  man  in  their  midst  well  fitted  for  this  office,  La 
Riviere,  who  had  been  trained  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Re- 
formed faith  by  Calvin  in  Geneva.  Not  only  a  pastor, 
but  elders  and  deacons  were  elected,  and  thus  a  fully- 
equipped  Presbyterian  Church  was  launched.  In  four 
years  from  the  organization  of  this  first  church,  two 
thousand  churches  of  like  character  were  organized  in 
different  parts  of  the  kingdom.  This  shows  how  ex- 
tensive the  sowing  had  been,  and  how  well  prepared  the 
soil  to  yield  a  quick  and  bountiful  harvest. 

Another  Succession  in  the  Throne.— The  year  1559 
was  an  eventful  year  both  in  the  political  history  of 
France  and  in  the  history  of  the  Reformed  Church.  In 
this  year  Henry  II.  was  accidentally  killed  in  a  tournament 
while  celebrating  the  marriage  of  his  daughter  Elizabeth 
with  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  His  eldest  son  came  to  the 
throne  as  Francis  II.  Just  one  year  before,  he  had 
married  the  beautiful  and  brilliant  heiress  to  the  throne 
of  Scotland,  known  in  history  as  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 
Francis,  Duke  of  Guise,  was  her  uncle.  Apart  from  this, 
he  was  the  most  powerful  noble  in  the  kingdom.  Not 
only  was  he  a  man  of  exalted  rank, — he  was  a  man  also  of 
vigorous    intellect,   strong    will,   intense  passions,  eager 


FRANCE  41 

ambitions,  and  of  great  military  reputation.  His  brother 
Charles  was  Cardinal  de  Lorraine,  a  man  of  kindred 
spirit  and  of  like  great  gifts.  They  were  the  leaders  of 
the  Catholics  and  their  partisan  zeal  was  ardent  and  un- 
remitting. With  their  niece  as  queen  they  were  in  a 
position  to  exert  an  almost  unlimited  influence  over  the 
destinies  of  the  kingdom.  To  make  their  position  more 
commanding,  Francis  II.  was  only  sixteen  years  old  when 
he  came  to  the  throne,  and  was  neither  strong  in  body 
nor  in  mind.  It  was  not  without  reason,  therefore,  that 
apprehension  of  the  gravest  character  was  entertained  as 
to  the  fate  of  those  whose  religious  views  were  offensive 
to  the  Guises. 

An  Opposition  Party. — This  apprehension  drew  to- 
gether the  leaders  of  the  house  of  Bourbon,  Antoine  of 
Navarre,  and  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde,  and  the  head  of 
the  house  of  Chatillon-sur-Loing,  Admiral  Coligny. 
These  openly  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Protestants,  partly 
from  religious  convictions  and  partly  from  political  reasons. 
The  Bourbons  were  a  branch  of  the  royal  family,  and  no 
doubt  jealousy  of  the  influence  of  the  Guises  had  much 
to  do  with  determining  their  course.  Very  naturally  the 
Protestants,  who  had  before  them  the  prospect  of  con- 
tinued and  increased  persecutions,  welcomed  the  acces- 
sion to  their  party  of  these  distinguished  and  powerful 
allies.  By  this  alliance,  however,  the  Protestants  became 
identified  with  a  political  party,  and  the  house  of  Bourbon 
with  a  religious  party.  Henceforth  France  was  a  king- 
dom divided  against  itself  politically  and  religiously. 

One  Other  Party. — This  was  made  up  exclusively  of 
the  queen  mother,  Catharine  de'  Medici.  She  was  a 
Catholic,  but  she  was  not  going  to  suffer  her  religion  to 
stand  in  the  way   of  her  political  interests.     It  did  not 


42       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

promise  well  for  her  ambitions  for  the  Guises  to  gather 
all  the  reins  of  power  into  their  hands.  Hence  she  did 
not  permit  her  position  as  queen  mother  to  be  over- 
shadowed by  them.  This  was  fortunate  for  the  Prot- 
estants. Had  she  united  her  influence  to  that  of  the 
Guises  and  the  court,  in  the  impending  conflict  between 
the  two  religions,  the  Reformed  faith  would  have  been 
blotted  out.  Catharine  was  first  of  all  for  herself,  and 
her  policy  was  to  prevent  either  party  from  gaining  a 
complete  victory  over  the  other. 

Organization  of  the  Reformed  Synod. — Such  was  the 
state  of  affairs  in  the  year  1559 — a  weak  young  king  on 
the  throne,  a  powerful  kinsman  of  his  wife  at  his  elbow, 
an  artful  and  selfish  mother  behind  his  chair.  Opposed 
to  them  was  the  house  of  Bourbon,  the  avowed  head  of 
the  Protestant  interests.  In  this  same  year,  the  two 
thousand  Reformed  congregations  scattered  throughout 
France,  sent  their  delegates  to  Paris,  to  the  number  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty,  and  organized  the  first  synod  of 
the  Reformed  Church.  They  conducted  their  business 
in  secret,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  their  Church  at  the 
peril  of  their  lives. 

Work  of  This  Synod. — The  chief  business  of  this  first 
synod  was  to  frame  and  adopt  a  Confession  of  Faith,  and 
a  Book  of  Discipline.  They  had  the  help  of  Calvin.  He 
had  already  demonstrated  in  Geneva  that  the  scheme  of 
government  which  he  had  outlined  in  the  Institutes  was  a 
workable  scheme.  He  had  put  it  into  practical  opera- 
tion, and  the  results  were  highly  gratifying.  The  French 
Church  did  not  have  to  adopt  an  untried  experiment. 
The  Confession  of  Faith  which  the  newly-organized 
Church  adopted  was  drafted  by  Calvin's  hand.  It  em- 
braced   forty    articles,    covering   the   whole    ground    of 


FRANCE  43 

polemic  theology.  The  infant  Church,  too  feeble  as  yet 
to  confront  its  powerful  adversary  in  open  battle,  was 
nevertheless  willing  that  the  whole  world  should  know 
exactly  where  it  stood  on  all  debatable  questions.  In  our 
age  and  country  we  can  hardly  conceive  what  was  im- 
plied in  publishing  a  Protestant  Confession  of  Faith  in 
the  sixteenth  century  in  France.  Nearly  every  article  in 
this  Confession  was  an  anathematized  heresy,  the  holding 
of  which  made  one  liable  to  death  by  burning.  Men  did 
close  thinking,  and  lingered  long  and  prayerfully  over 
the  living  oracles,  before  giving  to  the  public  a  statement 
of  doctrine  for  which  they  might  have  to  die. 

The  Form  of  Government  adopted  by  the  synod 
was  distinctly  Presbyterian,  though  differing  somewhat 
from  the  type  common  in  our  day.  It  gave  the  dea- 
cons a  seat  with  the  pastor  and  elders  in  the  church 
courts.  It  allowed  the  congregations  to  choose  their 
officers  in  the  first  instance,  but  it  empowered  the 
officers  to  fill  vacancies  afterwards  occurring  in  their  own 
ranks. 

Growth  of  the  Church. — During  the  twelve  years  fol- 
lowing the  organization  of  the  first  synod  the  growth  of 
the  Church  was  marvelous.  In  1 571,  the  synod  met  in 
Rochelle.  Theodore  Beza,  the  distinguished  colleague  of 
Calvin,  was  present  to  moderate  its  sessions.  The  noble 
queen  of  Navarre,  and  her  son,  Henry,  afterwards  to 
wear  the  crown  of  France,  the  Prince  of  Conde  and 
Count  de  Coligny,  Admiral  of  France,  graced  the  occa- 
sion by  their  presence.  Two  thousand  one  hundred  and 
fifty  churches  were  represented  by  the  synod.  Many  of 
these  were  phenomenally  large,  that  of  Orleans  number- 
ing seven  thousand  communicants,  served  by  five  pastors. 
In  some  of  these  churches  there  were  even  ten  thousand 


44 


HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


communicants,  and  the  number  of  their  pastors  was  pro- 
portionately great. 

This  was  the  cHmax  of  the  Church's  growth  and 
prosperity.  It  seems  a  httle  remarkable  that  a  move- 
ment which  even  in  its  tender  infancy  was  irrepressible 
should,  after  developing  to  such  magnificent  proportions, 
have  received  a  sudden  and  permanent  check.  But  so  it 
was.  Perhaps  in  1571,  the  Huguenots  comprised  one 
fourth  of  the  total  population  of  France.  But  the  thick 
clouds  were  gathering,  and  soon  such  a  storm  burst  upon 
this  Church  as  can  hardly  be  paralleled  in  history. 

Growth  in  the  Midst  of  Conflict.— Let  it  not  be  sup- 
posed that  all  the  twelve  years,  during  which  the  Church 
passed  from  infancy  to  the  acme  of  its  growth  were  years 
of  peaceful  progress.     The  remarkable  thing  is  that  this 
rapid  growth  took  place  in  the  midst  of  incessant  con- 
flict.    It  was  the  very  year  of  the  organization  of  the 
synod,  that  the  nation  divided  into  two  parties  and  these 
aligned  themselves,  the  one  with  Rome,  the  other  with 
Calvin.     It  was  the  religious  belief  of  each  that  the  other 
was  the  advocate  of  fatal  error,  and  that  fatal  error  was 
something   to   be   suppressed   at   all   hazard.      He  who 
murdered  the  body  was  to  be  put  out  of  the  way  for  the 
safety  of  society.     Much   more  was  it  necessary  for  the 
safety  of  society  that  the  murderer  of  souls  should  be  put 
out  of  the  way.     Hanging  was  too  good  for  him.     This 
was  the  estimate  in  which  these  two  parties  held  each 
other.     How  inevitable  that  they  should  soon  find  occa- 
sion to  begin  the  work  of  mutual  extermination  ! 

The  Conspiracy  of  Amboise,  1560.— The  Protestants 
were  now  called  Huguenots,  a  name  about  which  there 
is  still  much  disputing.  Probably  it  is  from  Eid-gcnosscii, 
oath    comrades.     The   first  hostile   movement  after  the 


FRANCE  45 

parties  stood  confronting  each  other  was  the  conspiracy 
of  Amboise.  For  this  the  Huguenots  were  held  re- 
sponsible, though  it  was  strictly  and  exclusively  political. 
The  object  was  to  get  possession  of  the  king,  and 
remove  him  from  the  dominating  influence  of  the  Guises. 
The  conspiracy  was  discovered  and  quite  a  number  of 
persons  were  put  to  death  for  supposed  compHcity  in  it. 
The  Prince  of  Conde  was  the  only  one  of  the  great  nobles 
implicated.  He  was  arrested,  sentenced  to  death  and 
thrown  into  prison. 

Another  Change  in  the  Throne.— It  was  most  fortu- 
nate for  Conde,  and  for  the  Protestant  cause  that  just  at  this 
juncture,  the  sickly  young  king  died.  He  was  succeeded 
in  the  throne  by  his  brother  Charles  IX,  a  boy  ten  years 
of  age.  The  regency  of  the  kingdom,  during  his  minority, 
was  committed  jointly  to  Catharine  de'  Medici,  and  An- 
toine,  king  of  Navarre.  This  change  in  affairs  greatly 
relieved  the  situation  of  the  Huguenots.  Had  Antoine 
been  a  man  of  courage  and  firmness,  and  withal  a 
stalwart  Christian  character,  he  could  have  used  his 
position  to  put  his  party  on  a  secure  footing.  But  he 
was  weak  and  inconstant,  and  permitted  the  shrewd  and 
enterprising  Catharine  to  absorb  all  the  power.  But  even 
this  was  for  the  time  being  a  fortunate  thing  for  the  Hugue- 
nots. She  was  not  willing  to  see  the  Guises  make  their 
victory  in  the  matter  of  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise  too 
complete.  She,  therefore,  released  Conde  from  prison 
and  granted  toleration  to  the  Protestants. 

Another  change  in  the  composition  of  the  court, 
caused  by  the  death  of  Francis  II,  was  favorable  to  the 
Reformers.  In  this  same  year,  1560,  Mary  of  Guise, 
mother  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots,  died,  and  the  beautiful 
young  widow  of  the   deceased   Francis   went   home  to 


46       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Scotland.  She  took  with  her,  of  course,  much  of  the 
influence  which  her  uncles,  the  Duke  of  Guise  and 
Cardinal  de  Lorraine,  had  exercised.  They  were  still 
powerful,  but  their  most  efficient  agent  at  court  was 
henceforth  wanting  to  them. 

The  Colloquy  of  Poissy. — Catharine  not  only  showed 
consideration  for  the  Huguenots  by  releasing  Conde  but 
she  appointed  immediately  a  colloquy,  or  conference  to  be 
held  on  the  9th  of  September,  1561.  It  was  galling  to 
the  pride  of  the  papists  to  be  constrained  to  meet  the 
Calvinists  on  a  footing  of  equality ;  but  Catharine  had 
resolved  that  such  a  meeting  should  take  place,  and 
nothing  could  turn  her  from  her  purpose.  Even  in  that 
age,  so  given  to  the  spectacular,  and  bombastic,  there 
were  few  more  brilliant  pageants  than  the  gathering  for 
this  conference  in  the  refectory  of  the  nuns'  convent  at 
Poissy.  It  was  resplendent  with  all  the  glittering  para- 
phernalia incident  to  the  presence  of  two  royal  courts,  six 
cardinals  and  many  high  dignitaries  in  both  Church  and 
state. 

Each  side  was  permitted  to  select  whom  it  would  to 
represent  its  cause.  The  Protestants  would  have  pre- 
ferred Calvin,  but  were  prevented  from  selecting  him  for 
prudential  reasons.  They  wrote  to  him,  saying :  "  We 
see  no  means  of  having  you  here  without  grave  peril,  in 
view  of  the  rage  which  all  the  enemies  of  the  gospel  have 
conceived  against  you,  and  the  disturbances  which  your 
name  alone  would  excite  in  this  country,  were  you 
known  to  be  present.  In  fact.  Admiral  Coligny  is  by  no 
means  in  favor  of  your  undertaking  the  journey,  and  we 
have  learned  with  certainty  that  the  queen,  Catharine  de' 
Medici,  would  not  relish  seeing  you.  She  says  frankly 
that    she  would    not   pledge   herself   for   your   safety." 


FRANCE  47 

Would  that  Calvin  might  have  confronted  that  Assembly, 
and  looked  with  his  deep-set,  piercing  eyes  into  the  face 
of  Cardinal  Lorraine,  the  presiding  officer,  while  he 
pointed  out  their  errors,  and  "  expounded  to  them  the 
way  of  the  Lord  more  accurately."  But  it  might  not  be. 
His  life  was  too  precious  for  his  devoted  followers  to  see 
him  take  the  risk.  Fortunately  there  was  one,  versed  in 
all  Calvin's  teaching,  who  was  available,  and  who  was  in 
some  respects  better  fitted  to  stand  in  that  presence  than 
Calvin  himself.  That  one  was  Theodore  Beza.  Of  noble 
birth  and  breeding,  he  had  in  early  life  moved  amid  the 
splendor  and  become  famihar  with  the  etiquette  of  courts. 
He  was  handsome,  graceful,  scholarly  and  eloquent.  The 
hatred  against  him  was  not  so  bitter  as  against  the  stern, 
inflexible  Calvin.  It  fell  to  his  lot,  therefore,  to  plead  the 
cause  of  the  Huguenots.  Most  nobly  did  he  perform 
the  duty.  But  the  conference  amounted  to  nothing  more 
than  a  show  of  fine  regalia,  and  a  sound  of  fine  words. 
Each  party  said  its  say,  and  then  held  on  its  predeter- 
mined course. 

Edict  of  St.  Germain.— On  the  17th  of  January,  1562, 
a  royal  edict  was  issued,  known  as  the  Edict  of  St.  Ger- 
main. This  was  a  notable  document  for  the  reason  that 
it  granted  the  Protestants  legal  recognition.  Viewed  in 
the  light  of  our  day  the  concessions  were  meager  enough, 
but  in  that  harsh  and  intolerant  age  they  were  hailed  with 
delight  by  those  in  whose  behalf  they  were  made.  By 
the  terms  of  this  edict  the  Protestants  were  granted  the 
privilege  of  meeting  for  worship  anywhere  outside  of  the 
walls  of  the  cities.  On  the  other  hand  they  were  re- 
quired to  surrender  all  the  churches,  of  which  they  had 
taken  possession,  situated  within  the  city  walls.  Of 
course,  there  were  many  Huguenots  who  were  far  from 


48       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

thankful  for  such  small  favors,  but  Beza,  representing  a 
large  gathering  of  ministers,  wrote  to  all  the  congrega- 
tions of  the  realm  advising  them  to  accept  the  terms  and 
observe  them  in  good  faith.  The  noble  Coligny  was  sat- 
isfied, and  Calvin  was  content,  saying,  *'  If  the  liberty 
promised  in  the  edict  last,  the  papacy  will  fall  to  the 
ground  of  itself."  All  that  he  and  the  other  men  of  faith 
wanted  was  merely  the  opportunity  to  proclaim  the 
truth. 

Massacre  of  Vassy.— The  liberty  guaranteed  by  the 
edict  lasted  just  six  weeks.  On  the  ist  day  of  March, 
1562,  the  Duke  of  Guise  was  passing  through  the  small 
town  of  Vassy.  A  number  of  Huguenots  had  gathered 
in  a  rude  barn  for  worship.  Some  of  the  duke's  soldiers 
entered  the  building  and  interrupted  the  service.  A  con- 
flict was  precipitated,  and  the  defenseless  Huguenots  were 
slaughtered  like  sheep,  no  respect  being  shown  to  age  or 
sex.  The  Protestants  made  earnest  complaint  to  the 
queen  mother  against  this  palpable  breach  of  the  Edict 
of  St.  Germain,  but  their  complainings  were  in  vain.  No 
redress  could  be  had.  They  accepted  this  as  a  token  that 
the  few  rights  granted  them  were  not  to  be  respected. 
Under  their  leaders,  they  prepared  to  vindicate  those 
rights  by  force  of  arms.  Thus  began  a  series  of  cruel 
and  desolating  wars  that  lasted  for  thirty  years. 

Huguenot  Reverses  and  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain. 
— Without  going  into  detail,  it  may  be  said  as  a  general 
summing  up  of  the  tragic  history  that  the  Protestants 
were  greatly  outnumbered,  and  the  battles  usually  went 
against  them.  But  their  unfailing  courage  and  their  per- 
tinacity of  purpose  made  it  a  costly  thing  for  their  ene- 
mies to  subdue  them.  Hence  frequent  truces  were 
granted,   and   favorable  terms   were  conceded  to  them. 


FRANCE  49 

The  most  favorable  of  these  were  contained  in  the  Treaty 
of  St.  Germain  in  1569.  The  Protestants  had  suffered 
a  most  disastrous  defeat,  involving  the  loss  of  one  of  their 
gallant  leaders,  the  Prince  of  Conde.  Probably  the  des- 
perate straits  into  which  their  cause  was  falling  moved 
Catharine  to  favor  a  scheme  for  their  relief.  She  was 
still  playing  the  role  of  an  opportunist,  and  she  did  not 
wish  the  victory  of  the  Guises  to  yield  larger  results.  By 
this  treaty  the  Huguenots  were  granted  liberty  of  wor- 
ship in  all  towns  except  Paris,  and  as  a  guarantee  of  their 
rights  they  were  put  in  possession  of  four  fortified  towns, 
La  Rochelle,  Montauban,  Cognac,  and  La  Charite.  This 
constituted  an  imperiiun  in  imperio.  "  A  kingdom  divided 
against  itself  cannot  stand." 

A  Royal  Marriage.— Steps  were  soon  taken  which 
gave  greater  promise  of  permanent  tranquillity  than  the 
possession  of  any  number  of  fortified  towns.  Catharine 
de'  Medici  had  a  daughter  just  nineteen  years  of  age. 
Jeanne  d'Albret,  queen  of  Navarre,  now  like  Catharine,  a 
widow,  had  a  son,  Prince  Henry,  just  nineteen  years  of 
age.  When  these  two  were  little  children,  it  had  occurred 
to  older  heads  that  their  marriage  would  make  good 
cement  with  which  to  unite  Catholics  and  Protestants. 
The  matter  was  discussed  even  before  the  death  of  Henry 
n.  Now  after  years  of  desolating  wars  had  brought  the 
country  into  the  sorest  distress,  the  project  was  revived, 
and  was  entered  into  with  the  greatest  interest.  King 
Charles  was  mightily  bent  on  it.  Catharine  seconded 
him  heartily.  Admiral  Coligny,  the  head  of  the  Prot- 
estant party,  was  delighted  with  it.  Jeanne  d'Albret,  the 
mother  of  Henry,  was  not  so  eager.  She  was  extremely 
anxious  for  peace,  and  in  so  far  as  this  marriage  gave 
promise  of  peace,  she  favored  it.     But  with  her,  religion 


so       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

was  the  great  concern.  She  said  she  would  consult  her 
spiritual  adviser,  and  as  soon  as  her  conscience  was  at 
rest,  she  would  go  any  lengths  to  bring  about  cordial  re- 
lations with  the  king  and  queen.  ''  But,"  she  added,  "  I 
would  rather  sink  to  the  condition  of  the  humblest 
dainoiselle  in  France  than  sacrifice  to  the  aggrandizement 
of  my  family  my  own  soul  and  my  son's."  Such  was 
Jeanne  d'Albret,  the  greatest  woman  of  the  age  in  which 
she  lived.  She  went  up  to  the  court  to  see  the  royal 
family,  and  to  talk  the  matter  over.  She  liked  the  young 
girl,  Margaret.  In  a  letter  to  her  son  she  describes  her 
as  "  beautiful,  and  discreet  and  of  good  demeanor,  but 
brought  up  in  the  most  accursed  and  most  corrupt  society 
that  ever  was.  I  would  not  for  anything  in  the  world 
have  you  here  to  remain  here.  This  is  why  I  desire  to 
get  you  married,  and  you  and  your  wife  withdrawn  from 
this  corruption  ;  for  though  I  believed  it  to  be  very  great, 
I  find  it  still  more  so."  The  young  Duke  of  Guise 
seriously  objected  to  the  marriage,  principally  for  the 
reason  that  he  wanted  Margaret  for  himself  and  had  en- 
tertained hopes  that  he  might  get  her.  The  Pope  of 
Rome  objected,  for  the  reason  that  he  did  not  wish  to  see 
Catholics  and  Huguenots  brought  together  in  permanent 
peace.  He  sent  a  cardinal  to  oppose  the  marriage,  but 
King  Charles  was  not  to  be  turned  aside.  Just  what  his 
motive  was  we  shall  never  know.  The  marriage  was 
celebrated  on  August  i8,  1572. 

St.  Bartholomew  Massacre. — Many  of  the  Huguenot 
leaders  came  up  to  Paris  to  attend  the  wedding.  Some 
days  were  spent  in  social  festivities.  The  Guises  left  the 
court,  to  avoid  witnessing  the  nuptials.  They  very  soon 
returned,  and  a  close  intimacy  developed  between  them 
and  Catharine.     It  is  supposed  that  Catharine  had  grown 


FRANCE  51 

jealous  of  Coligny's  influence  over  Charles.  The  young 
king  was  in  constant  intercourse  with  the  great  admiral, 
and  seemed  disposed  to  give  him  first  place  in  his  coun- 
sels. It  was  time  for  Catharine  to  throw  her  influence  on 
the  other  side.  She  and  the  Guises  began  to  plot.  An 
effort  was  made  to  assassinate  Coligny.  A  badly-aimed 
shot  from  an  upper  window  shattered  his  hand  and  lodged 
a  ball  in  his  left  arm.  This  alarmed  the  Huguenots. 
Catharine  and  the  Duke  of  Guise  took  the  king  into 
their  confidence.  They  represented  to  Charles  that  the 
Huguenots  were  plotting  to  take  his  life.  They  either 
worried  or  frightened  him  into  an  acquiescence  in  their 
plans.  In  a  fit  of  desperation  he  bade  them  to  make  a 
clean  sweep,  and  leave  no  Huguenot  to  reproach  him. 
Before  dayhght  of  August  24,  1572,  the  signal  sounded, 
and  the  most  notable,  because  the  most  atrocious,  mas- 
sacre known  to  history  was  begun.  It  spread  from  Paris 
to  other  cities,  and  lasted  several  days.  The  number  of 
victims  must  ever  remain  a  matter  of  conjecture.  It  is 
variously  estimated  from  twenty  thousand  to  one  hun- 
dred thousand.  It  is  called  the  Massacre  of  St.  Barthol- 
omew because  in  the  calendar  of  the  Romish  Church  the 
24th  of  August  is  the  feast  of  this  saint. 

Result  Disappointing. — Wickedness  overreached  itself. 
A  crime  so  great  shocked  all  Europe,  excepting  only  the 
Pope  and  Philip  II  of  Spain.  Gregory  XIII,  who  was 
Pope  at  the  time,  ordered  the  Te  Deum  to  be  sung,  and 
had  a  medal  struck  to  commemorate  the  event.  His 
apologists  say  that  his  rejoicing  was  not  over  the  slaughter 
of  the  Huguenots,  but  over  the  deliverance  of  the  king 
from  their  conspiracy.  The  medal  tells  its  own  tale — it 
pictures  not  deliverance  but  destruction. 

Siege  of  Rochelle.— While  the   blow  weakened   the 


52       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Protestants  numerically,  it  put  fresh  energy  into  those 
who  remained,  and  brought  to  their  side  many  moderate 
Catholics.  In  three  months,  civil  war  was  again  raging. 
It  centered  in  an  effort  to  capture  Rochelle.  From  the 
1 6th  of  February  to  the  13th  of  June,  the  city  was  be- 
sieged by  an  army  of  forty  thousand  men.  It  was  de- 
fended by  a  garrison  of  only  thirty-one  hundred.  Six 
assaults  were  made  on  it.  But  the  efforts  of  besiegers 
were  in  vain.  The  war  ended  by  granting  the  Huguenots 
the  most  advantageous  terms  they  had  yet  enjoyed. 

Change  in  the  Throne.— In  May,  1574,  Charles  IX 
died,  leaving  the  Huguenots  as  far  from  extermination, 
and  as  formidable  as  they  were  before  the  perpetration  of 
that  crime  that  haunted  him  night  and  day  and  made 
his  deathbed  a  scene  of  horror.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  brother  Henry  HI.  From  this  time  until  1588  there 
were  three  parties  in  the  kingdom.  At  the  head  of  one 
was  Henry,  King  of  France ;  at  the  head  of  another  was 
Henry,  King  of  Navarre ;  and  at  the  head  of  the  third 
was  Henry,  Duke  of  Guise.  Civil  wars  continued,  part 
of  the  Catholics  acting  with  the  Huguenots.  At  times 
Henry  HI  had  more  cause  for  apprehension  from  the 
ambition  of  the  Guises  than  from  the  hostility  of  the 
Protestants.  Especially  was  this  the  case  after  the  death 
of  his  younger  brother.  It  then  became  highly  probable 
that  Henry  of  Navarre  would  fall  heir  to  the  crown  of 
France.  Henry  HI  had  no  children,  and  should  he  die, 
the  king  of  Navarre  would  have  the  right  of  succession. 
The  intense  Catholics  formed  a  league  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Guise,  in  which  they  were  joined  by  Spain.  The 
object  was  to  prevent  by  force  of  arms  the  accession  of 
a  Huguenot  to  the  throne  of  France.  Henry  III  by  a 
vacillating  policy  had  rendered  himself  very  unpopular. 


FRANCE  53 

and  the  Duke  of  Guise  could  not  refrain  from  making  it 
manifest  that  he  was  more  powerful  than  the  king.  By 
a  display  of  military  force  he  constrained  the  king  to 
flee  from  his  own  capital.  No  king  can  be  content  to 
occupy  a  position  subordinate  to  one  of  his  nobles. 
Henry  III  knew  no  other  way  of  regaining  the  ascend- 
ency, and  so  he  procured  the  assassination  of  the  duke. 
This  sealed  his  own  fate.  In  a  short  while  a  fanatical 
monk,  gaining  access  to  him  by  treachery,  dealt  him  a 
fatal  blow. 

Accession  of  Henry  IV — After  the  death  of  Henry 
III  nothing  stood  between  the  king  of  Navarre,  the 
leader  of  the  Huguenots,  and  the  throne  of  France  ex- 
cept the  opposition  of  the  Catholic  League.  This  oppo- 
sition, however,  was  very  formidable.  It  was  backed  by 
Philip  II  of  Spain,  who  was  all  too  wilhng  to  take  a 
hand  in  the  work  of  suppressing  the  Protestants.  The 
moderate  Catholics  who  had  for  some  while  sided  with 
the  Huguenots,  were  not  willing  to  see  a  Protestant  on 
the  throne.  Their  withdrawal  would  greatly  weaken  the 
hands  of  Henry.  The  Pope  used  the  spiritual  powers 
with  which  he  was  clothed  to  blight  Henry's  prospects. 
Henry's  position  was  a  trying  one.  While  at  the  head 
of  the  Protestants,  he  was  in  opposition  to  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  his  fellow-countrymen.  His  title  to  the  crown 
was  clear,  but  he  could  only  wear  it,  if  at  all,  after  years 
more  of  desolating  wars.  He  did  not  wish  to  reign  over 
the  dead,  and  yet  if  he  must  conquer  his  way  to  the 
crown,  France  would  be  one  vast  burial  ground.  An- 
other difficulty  grew  out  of  the  intense  bigotry  of  some 
of  the  Huguenots.  They  could  not  bear  the  thought  of 
Henry's  granting  equal  rights  to  Catholics  with  them- 
selves.    No  sooner  had  Henry  intimated  that  it  would  be 


54       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

his  policy  to  grant  full  liberty  to  both  religions,  than 
many  Protestants  drew  away  from  his  standard.  It  was 
said  by  some  cotemporaries  that  he  was  deserted  by  as 
many  Huguenots  as  Catholics.  Surely  this  was  an  un- 
happy position.  For  a  time  Henry  stood  true  to  the 
religion  in  which  he  had  been  trained  from  childhood. 
When  he  heard  that  some  in  the  army  felt  scruples  about 
remaining  in  his  service  unless  he  would  embrace  the 
Catholic  faith,  he  said  :  "  I  am  very  glad  to  inform  them 
here,  in  the  presence  of  you  all,  that  I  would  rather  this 
were  the  last  day  of  my  life  than  take  any  step  which 
might  cause  me  to  be  suspected  of  having  dreamt  of  re- 
nouncing the  religion  that  I  sucked  in  with  my  mother's 
milk,  before  I  have  been  better  instructed  by  a  lawful 
council  to  whose  authority  I  bow  in  advance."  Even 
here,  however,  while  claiming  loyalty  to  his  convictions, 
he  throws  out  a  hint  that  these  convictions  were  not  so 
settled  as  that  they  might  not  be  changed. 

The  passionate  zeal  of  the  leaders  of  the  League  left 
him  no  option  but  to  maintain  his  rights  by  force  of 
arms.  They  were  not  willing  that  he  should  be  permit- 
ted to  ascend  the  throne  even  on  condition  that  he  should 
change  his  religion.  In  their  eyes  he  had  already  sinned 
beyond  forgiveness.  In  the  war  that  followed,  Henry 
added  greatly  to  his  military  renown,  especially  at  the 
battle  of  Ivry.  His  words  to  his  soldiers  just  before  the 
action  began  will  never  cease  to  thrill :  "  Comrades,  if 
you  lose  your  standard,  do  not  lose  sight  of  my  white 
plume ;  you  will  always  find  it  in  the  path  of  honor,  and, 
I  hope,  of  victory,  too."  He  not  only  gained  victories 
over  his  enemies  in  the  field,  but  by  his  gracious  and 
generous  bearing  toward  captured  towns  and  provinces, 
he  won  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen.     Still  he  was  con- 


FRANCE  55 

vinced  that  the  majority  would  never  wilhngly  see  him 
king  while  continuing  a  Protestant.  He  determined, 
therefore,  to  submit  himself  to  the  Pope,  and  thus  pave 
the  way  to  the  peaceable  possession  of  the  throne.  On 
the  15th  of  July,  1593,  he  entered  the  Church  of  Notre 
Dame,  made  his  recantation,  knelt  and  received  papal 
absolution. 

Fortunes  of  the  Church. — Of  course  the  fate  of  the 
Reformed  Church  was  bound  up  in  the  political  fortunes 
of  the  Huguenot  cause.  Perhaps  no  Church  has  ever 
survived  a  more  trying  ordeal  than  that  through  which 
this  Church  passed  during  the  thirty  years  beginning 
with  the  first  civil  war  in  1562.  It  is  hardly  putting  it 
too  strongly  to  say  that  the  whole  soil  of  France  was 
stained  with  the  blood  of  her  children.  To  the  usual 
horrors  of  civil  war  were  added  the  unspeakable  horrors 
of  frequent  massacres,  in  which  the  sword  devoured  all 
ages  and  sexes.  Poverty  and  general  demoralization 
followed  in  the  wake  of  war.  The  fields  were  desolate, 
the  cities  dismantled,  the  land  dotted  with  ruins,  agricul- 
ture and  commerce  interrupted  and,  to  a  large  extent, 
destroyed.  This  distressing  state  of  affairs,  continuing 
so  long,  told  powerfully  against  the  Church.  The  2,150 
congregations  represented  in  the  Synod  at  Rochelle  in 
1 571  were  reduced  to  760  by  the  year  1598.  The 
schools,  which  the  Church  had  founded  at  the  cost  of  so 
much  self-denial  and  which  were  her  pride  and  glory 
were  broken  up ;  her  ministers  were  poorly  paid,  and  the 
tone  of  piety  was  seriously  lowered. 

Result  of  the  King's  Policy. — Henry  IV  was  richly 
gifted  in  intellect  and  heart.  He  was  every  inch  a 
Frenchman,  brilliant,  versatile,  brave  and  generous.  He 
knew  the   French   people,  and  acquired  an  ascendency 


56       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

over  them  such  as  no  other  king,  perhaps,  has  ever  had. 
He  has  never  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  their  ideal  king. 
His  quahties  were  of  a  kind  to  attract  the  admiration  of 
those  who  could  not  approve  his  course  in  the  matter  of 
religion.  Evidently  he  was  not  a  deeply-religious  man. 
Vastly  different  was  his  spirit  from  that  of  his  mother, 
the  ever  to  be  venerated,  Jeanne  d'Albret.  A  saying  of 
hers  has  survived  to  the  effect  that  if  she  held  her  king- 
dom in  one  hand  and  her  son  in  the  other  she  would 
sink  them  both  in  the  sea  before  she  would  go  to  mass. 
In  contrast  with  this,  Henry  said  a  kingdom  was  worth 
a  mass,  and  so  he  paid  the  price  and  took  it. 

Happy  Consequences  of  Henry's  Policy. — He  rightly 
judged  that  his  change  of  religion  would  bring  peace  to 
his  distracted  country.  Sorely  it  needed  peace,  and  when 
this  came  prosperity  came  in  its  train.  Soon  the  desert 
began  to  blossom  as  the  rose.  Agriculture,  commerce, 
and  the  arts  of  industry  revived,  and  to  the  disasters  of  war 
there  succeeded  a  rich  abundance  as  the  reward  of  intel- 
ligent thrift.  In  1598,  the  Edict  of  Nantes  was  issued, 
granting  full  religious  liberty  to  the  Huguenots  in  all 
parts  of  France,  except  Paris.  At  the  same  time,  it 
guaranteed  to  them  their  civil  rights,  and  confirmed  them 
in  the  possession  of  the  strongly-fortified  towns  which 
had  been  ceded  to  them  in  the  Treaty  of  St.  Germain. 

The  king  in  changing  his  religion  did  not  change  his 
sentiments  toward  his  former  associates.  He  continued 
to  love  the  H^uguenots,  and  he  used  his  exalted  position 
to  throw  over  them  a  shield  of  protection,  and  to  give 
them  the  rights  of  citizenship. 

Later  Consequences. — Consequences  do  not  all  ripen 
at  once.  Could  Henry  IV  have  lived  forever,  or  could 
he   have   transmitted   his  power  and   policy  to   a  like- 


FRANCE  57 

minded  successor,  France  might  have  continued  to  reap 
a  harvest  of  blessing.  But  neither  of  these  could  be. 
In  1610,  the  knife  of  an  assassin  laid  the  king  low.  Then 
the  power  which  he  had  wielded  for  the  good  of  all  his 
subjects  passed  to  those  who  had  no  love  for  the  Hugue- 
nots, and  who  had  never  reckoned  them  as  entitled  to 
any  rights.  A  few  years  before  his  death,  Henry  had 
married  a  second  time,  and  had  again  chosen  a  wife  with 
the  blood  of  the  Medici  flowing  through  her  veins.  This 
blood  was  all  poisoned  with  hatred  toward  the  Prot- 
estants. By  this  marriage  Henry  left  an  heir  to  the 
throne  in  the  person  of  Louis  XHI.  He  inherited  no 
trace  of  Henry's  broad  and  generous  views,  much  less 
any  trace  of  his  paternal  grandmother's  intelligent  and 
fervent  piety.  While  he  was  yet  under  age,  his  mother 
chose  Richelieu  as  prime  minister.  The  controlling  idea 
of  his  administration  was  the  doctrine  of  royal  absolu- 
tism. He  set  himself  with  deliberate  purpose  to  make  the 
king  supreme  in  every  department  of  government,  and 
pursued  this  purpose  relentlessly  and  with  consummate  suc- 
cess. In  a  few  years  he  found  a  pretext  for  suppressing 
the  synods  of  the  Church.  He  sent  troops  into  the  prov- 
ince of  Beam,  the  stronghold  of  the  Huguenots,  and  after 
much  bloodshed,  reestablished  the  papacy.  He  be- 
sieged the  city  of  Rochelle ;  and  when  the  city  had  been 
reduced  by  starvation  from  20,000  to  4,000  inhabitants, 
it  was  compelled  to  surrender.  In  the  fall  of  Rochelle 
the  last  bulwark  of  religious  liberty  was  swept  away. 
The  political  power  of  the  Huguenots  having  been  des- 
troyed there  was  domestic  peace  for  the  remainder  of 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIII. 

Accession   of  a   New   King. — In    1643,    Louis    XIV 
came  to  the  throne  and  began  the  longest,  and  in  the 


58       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

mere  matter  of  pomp  and  circumstance  of  royalty,  per- 
haps the  most  brilliant  reign  in  the  whole  history  of  the 
French  nation.  Like  his  father,  he  had  a  cardinal  for  his 
prime  minister.  Mazarin  was  of  a  different  spirit,  how- 
ever, from  Richelieu  in  his  attitude  toward  the  Protes- 
tants. These  had  won  a  right  to  kindly  consideration. 
During  the  wars  of  the  Fronde — wars  waged  by  the 
great  nobles  against  the  king  and  his  court,  the  Hu- 
guenots were  faithful  to  the  king,  and  their  fidelity 
counted  for  much  in  securing  the  stability  of  the  throne. 
The  attitude  of  the  Protestants  deterred  Cromwell  from 
sending  aid  to  the  rebellious  princes.  It  may  well  be 
questioned,  therefore,  whether  Louis  XIV  did  not  owe 
to  the  good  will  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  beginning  of 
his  reign  that  position  of  advantage  which  made  possible 
the  splendor  of  his  marvelous  career.  Cardinal  Mazarin 
certainly  recognized  that  the  court  owed  them  a  debt  of 
gratitude,  and  a  royal  edict  was  issued  in  1652  confirming 
and  ratifying  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 

The  King's  Way  of  Showing  Kindness  to  the  Hugue- 
nots.— Mazarin  died  in  the  spring  of  1661.  But  even 
before  his  death  the  king's  policy  had  undergone  a 
change.  To  the  synod  which  met  at  Loudun  in  1660, 
the  king  sent  a  messenger  to  announce  that  "  His  Maj- 
esty has  resolved  that  there  shall  be  no  more  such  as- 
semblies until  he  deems  it  expedient."  He  never  deemed 
it  expedient,  and  that  was  the  last  national  synod  that 
met  until  1872.  In  1661,  Louis  wrote  that  "  those  who 
employed  violent  remedies  against  the  religion  styled  Re- 
formed did  not  understand  the  nature  of  this  malady, 
caused  partly  by  heated  feelings  which  should  be  passed 
over  unnoticed  and  allowed  to  die  out  insensibly  instead 
of  being  inflamed  afresh  by  equally  strong  contradiction, 


FRANCE  59 

which,  moreover,  is  always  useless  when  the  taint  is  not 
confined  to  a  certain  known  number  but  spread  through- 
out the  state.  I  thought,  therefore,  the  best  way  of  re- 
ducing the  Huguenots  of  my  kingdom  little  by  little  was 
in  the  first  place,  not  to  put  any  pressure  on  them  by 
any  fresh  rigor  against  them,  to  see  to  the  observance  of 
all  that  they  had  obtained  from  my  predecessors,  but  to 
grant  them  nothing  further,  and  even  to  confine  the  per- 
formance thereof  within  the  narrowest  limits  that  justice 
and  propriety  would  permit.  But  as  to  graces  that  de- 
pend on  me  alone,  I  have  resolved,  and  I  have  pretty 
well  kept  my  resolution  ever  since,  not  to  do  them  any, 
and  that  from  kindness,  not  from  bitterness,  in  order  to 
force  them  in  that  way  to  reflect  from  time  to  time  of 
themselves  and  without  violence  whether  it  were  for  any 
good  reason  that  they  deprived  themselves  voluntarily  of 
advantages  which  might  be  shared  by  them  in  common 
with  all  my  other  subjects." 

His  Kindness  Not  Appreciated. — It  seems  that  thus 
early  in  his  reign  the  Grand  Monarch  had  become  pos- 
sessed with  the  notion  that  none  of  his  subjects  could 
live  without  his  favor  ;  and  that  all  that  was  necessary  to 
break  the  spirit  of  the  Huguenots  was  to  shut  them  off 
from  royal  patronage.  It  did  not  require  a  great  while 
to  disclose  to  him  that  his  kindness  was  misplaced.  Not- 
withstanding he  left  them  to  meditate  on  the  folly  of 
their  way,  they  were  not  by  meditation  converted  from 
it.  The  king  was  shocked  at  their  obstinacy.  He  could 
never  understand  why  they  should  insist  on  trying  to 
please  God,  by  worshiping  and  serving  him  in  a  way  that 
was  not  pleasing  to  the  king.  Finding  that  his  policy, 
born  of  kindness  not  of  bitterness,  was  a  failure,  he  put 
it  aside. 


6o       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

King  Resorts  to  Bribery  and  Force. — He  relied  much 
on  a  system  of  purchasing  conversions.  He  opened  the 
way  to  promotion  for  Huguenots  of  noble  birth.  He 
rightly  judged  that  those  who  had  hitherto  figured  in  af- 
fairs of  state  would  find  it  hard  to  be  relegated  to  ob- 
scurity, and  to  them  he  held  out  the  tempting  bait  of 
official  preferment.  To  those  who  would  not  renounce 
their  faith  all  doors  were  closed.  "  They  could  no  longer 
sit  in  the  courts,  or  parliaments,  or  administer  the  finances, 
or  become  medical  practitioners,  barristers  or  notaries." 
Many  Huguenots  of  the  higher  ranks  gave  way.  But 
the  middle  and  lower  classes  were  more  loyal  to  their 
convictions  and  on  them  bribes  had  little  effect.  The 
king  had  nothing  to  offer,  not  even  if  he  had  offered  all 
the  wealth  and  honors  of  his  realm,  comparable  to  that 
which  they  were  asked  to  resign.  Hence  he  had  to  resort 
to  directly  repressive  measures.  Pastors  were  forbidden 
to  visit  their  flocks  except  under  severe  restrictions. 
They  were  not  to  make  any  more  converts  to  the  Prot- 
estant faith,  and  "  every  chapel  into  which  a  new  convert 
was  admitted  was  to  be  pulled  down,  and  the  pastor  was 
to  be  banished." 

The  Dragonnades. — The  king  departed  farther  and 
farther  from  his  first  policy,  as  he  came  to  know  more 
and  more  of  the  Huguenot  obstinacy.  He  hit  upon  one 
of  the  most  cruel  methods  of  persecution  that  was  ever 
conceived,  even  by  the  **  Most  Christian  "  king  of  that 
age.  He  sent  regiments  of  cavalry  to  the  provinces  in 
which  the  Huguenots  were  most  numerous,  and  made 
these  Protestants  receive  them  into  their  homes  and  care 
for  them.  These  unwelcome  guests  were  encouraged  to 
be  as  uncivil  and  brutal  as  they  could  find  it  in  their 
hardened  natures  to  be.     "  The  dragoons  took  up  their 


FRANCE  6i 

quarters  in  peaceable  families,  ruining  the  more  well  to 
do,  maltreating  old  men,  women  and  children,  striking 
them  with  their  sticks  or  the  flat  of  their  swords,  hauling 
off  Protestants  in  the  churches  by  the  hair  of  their  head, 
harnessing  laborers  to  their  own  plows  and  goading  them 
like  oxen."  Finding  this  method  of  conversion  fairly 
effective  they  redoubled  their  efforts.  Foucauld,  who  had 
charge  of  this  missionary  agency  in  the  province  of 
Beam,  where  the  taint  of  heresy  was  deepest  and  most 
nearly  universal,  distinguished  himself.  *'  He  egged  on 
the  soldiers  to  torture  the  inhabitants  of  the  houses  they 
were  quartered  in,  commanding  them  to  keep  awake  all 
those  who  would  not  give  in  to  other  tortures.  The 
dragoons  relieved  one  another  so  as  not  to  succumb 
themselves  to  the  punishment  they  were  making  others 
undergo.  Beating  of  drums,  blasphemies,  shouts,  the 
crash  of  furniture  which  they  hurled  from  side  to  side, 
commotion  in  which  they  kept  these  poor  people  in  order 
to  force  them  to  be  on  their  feet  and  hold  their  eyes 
open,  were  the  means  they  employed  to  deprive  them  of 
rest.  To  pinch,  prick,  and  haul  them  about,  to  lay  them 
upon  burning  coals,  and  a  hundred  other  cruelties  were 
the  sport  of  these  butchers  ;  all  they  thought  most  about 
was  how  to  find  tortures  which  should  be  painful  without 
being  deadly,  reducing  their  hosts  thereby  to  such  a  state, 
that  they  knew  not  what  they  were  doing,  and  promised 
anything  that  was  wanted  of  them  in  order  to  escape  from 
those  barbarous  hands." 

Huguenots  Leave  France. — Powerless  to  resist,  those 
of  the  Huguenots  who  could  sought  safety  in  flight. 
This  method  of  freeing  the  country  of  heresy  was  not  at 
all  to  the  king's  liking.  He  knew  that  he  could  ill  afford 
to  lose  so  large  and  so  valuable  a  portion  of  the  people. 


62       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

What  he  wanted  was  to  destroy  heresy  and  keep  the 
heretics.  Hence  stringent  enactments  were  passed  to 
prevent  the  Protestants  from  leaving  the  kingdom.  If 
men  were  caught  trying  to  escape  they  were  condemned 
to  the  galleys,  a  kind  of  punishment  corresponding  to  the 
chain  gang  of  our  day.  The  women  were  punished  with* 
confiscation  of  person  and  property.  Many  thousands 
preferring  the  galleys  to  apostasy  took  their  chances,  and 
made  their  escape.  Other  thousands,  with  no  oppor- 
tunity for  flight,  and  unable  to  endure  the  diversified 
torments  to  which  they  were  subjected  professed  conver- 
sion. At  length  the  king  assumed  that  the  taint,  as  he 
called  it,  was  pretty  well  eradicated,  and  -that  there  was 
no  further  need  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes.  There  were  still 
spots  of  the  disease,  but  a  few  more  finishing  touches 
would  put  an  end  to  them. 

Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes. — The  king  called 
together  his  council,  and  after  due  deliberation  a  resolu- 
tion was  unanimously  passed  for  the  suppression  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes.  This  was  signed  by  the  king  on  the  15th  of 
October,  1685,  with  the  explanation  that  "our  pains 
have  had  the  end  we  had  proposed,  seeing  that  the  better 
and  the  greater  part  of  our  subjects  of  the  religion  styled 
Reformed  have  embraced  the  Catholic ;  the  execution  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  consequently  remaining  useless,  we 
have  considered  that  we  could  not  do  better,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  effacing  entirely  the  memory  of  the  evils  which 
this  false  religion  has  caused  in  our  kingdom,  than  revoke 
entirely  the  aforesaid  Edict  of  Nantes  and  all  that  has 
been  done  in  favor  of  the  said  religion."  The  king  was 
very  considerate,  desiring  to  destroy  not  only  the  evils, 
to  which  the  Reformed  faith  had  given  birth,  but  even  the 
memory  of  those  evils.     It   is  evident  that  his  measure 


FRANCE  63 

was  not  a  success,  for  it  has  affixed  a  stain  upon  his 
character  that  will  remain  while  history  continues  to  re- 
count the  glories  of  the  "  Grand  Monarch." 

The  edict,  revoking  that  of  Nantes,  ordered  the  demoli- 
tion of  all  chapels,  and  forbade  all  assembling  for  wor- 
ship ;  the  schools  were  closed,  all  new-born  babes  were  to 
be  baptized  by  the  Catholic  priests,  and  the  Protestant 
ministers  were  ordered  to  leave  the  kingdom  in  fifteen 
days. 

Flight  of  the  Huguenots. — All  attempts  to  prevent  the 
flight  of  the  Huguenots  were  unavailing.  They  poured 
over  the  borders  by  the  thousands,  carrying  with  them 
riches  in  the  way  of  sturdy  character  and  intelligent 
energy  that  France  could  poorly  afford  to  lose.  They 
belonged  for  the  most  part  to  the  thrifty  middle  class. 
Out  of  Tours  went  thirty  thousand  silk-weavers ;  out  of 
Lyons  nine  thousand ;  other  cities  and  other  industries 
lost  in  like  proportion.  Louis  XIV  was  knocking  the 
props  from  under  the  throne,  the  truth  of  which  came  to 
light  toward  the  end  of  the  next  century.  All  the  sur- 
rounding nations,  England,  Germany,  Switzerland  and 
Holland  were  made  richer  by  the  suicidal  policy  of  the 
proud  monarch,  whose  will  it  was  "  that  there  be  no 
more  than  one  religion  in  this  kingdom ;  it  is  for  the 
glory  of  God  and  the  well-being  of  the  state." 

An  Outburst  of  Fanaticism. — It  was  soon  evident  that 
sparks  enough  had  been  left  to  kindle  into  quite  a  con- 
flagration. The  Cevennes  Mountains  furnished  a  con- 
venient hiding  place  for  those  who  could  not  escape  to  a 
greater  distance.  Persecution  followed  them  thither. 
Many  ministers  who  were  risking  life  to  instruct  and 
comfort  their  poor  bleeding  and  mangled  flocks  were 
taken  and  executed.     Instead  of  awing  into  silence  the 


64       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

humble  peasants  of  Languedoc  to  whom  these  pastors 
had  ministered,  these  executions  hfted  their  reHgious 
zeal  to  the  loftiest  enthusiasm ;  desperation  took  on  the 
form  of  fanaticism  ;  and  gray  beards  and  children  began 
to  play  the  role  of  prophets.  The  contagion  of  fanat- 
icism spread,  and  meetings  were  held  in  defiance  of  dan- 
ger and  death  to  hear  what  the  inspired  children  had  to 
say.  Efforts  at  repression  began.  One  of  the  worst 
enemies  of  the  Protestants  was  Abbe  du  Chayla  who  had 
undertaken  a  mission  of  suppression  at  the  head  of  the 
Capuchins.  When  his  house  was  crowded  with  con- 
demned Protestants,  the  peasants,  inflamed  with  pro- 
phetic hopes  surrounded  the  house,  and  demanded  the 
release  of  the  prisoners.  Their  demand  being  refused, 
the  doors  were  forced,  the  prisoners  released,  and  the 
priests,  including  the  Abbe  du  Chayla,  who  were  in 
charge  of  them  were  put  to  death. 

War  with  the  Camisards. — This  serious  uprising  oc- 
curred in  a  region  that  had  been  converted  to  Catholi- 
cism in  a  wholesale  manner  by  the  terrible  dragonnades. 
The  testimony  of  an  able  captain  who  was  sent  there  to 
repress  it,  is  to  the  effect  that  there  were  not  in  that 
whole  district  forty  real  converts.  "  I  include  in  that 
number  females  as  well  as  males,  and  the  mothers  and 
daughters  would  give  the  more  striking  proofs  of  their 
fury  if  they  had  the  strength  of  the  men.  I  will  say  but 
one  word  more,  which  is  that  the  children  who  were  in 
their  cradles  at  the  time  of  the  general  conversions,  as 
well  as  those  who  were  four  or  five  years  old,  are  now 
more  Huguenot  than  their  fathers.  Nobody,  however, 
has  set  eyes  on  any  minister ;  how  then  comes  it  that 
they  are  so  Huguenot?  Because  the  fathers  and 
mothers   brought  them  up   in  those   sentiments  all  the 


FRANCE  65 

time  they  were  going  to  mass.  You  may  rely  upon  it 
that  this  will  continue  for  many  generations."  So  it  has 
and  the  end  is  not  yet. 

The  revolt  grew  more  and  more  serious  until  the 
Cevennes  were  proclaimed  outlaws  and  the  Pope  decreed 
a  crusade  against  them.  Now  the  king  began  in  earnest 
to  attempt  the  suppression  of  the  Camisards,  as  they  were 
called,  presumably  from  a  white  blouse  which  they  wore. 
At  the  head  of  the  Camisards  appeared  a  remarkable 
youth  of  eighteen  years  of  age.  His  name  was  John 
Cavalier  and  he  caused  it  to  be  embalmed  with  honor  in 
the  pages  of  history.  Against  him  and  his  untrained 
band  of  peasants  were  sent  the  veteran  soldiers  of  the 
kingdom  led  by  generals  who  had  won  glory  on  the  bat- 
tlefields of  Europe.  For  three  years  he  maintained  the 
unequal  conflict,  displaying  a  remarkable  genius  for  war, 
and  a  spirit  that  quelled  before  no  difficulties  or  dan- 
gers. His  career,  however,  was  only  made  possible  by 
the  rare  quality  of  the  people  whom  he  led.  Marshal 
Villars  who  was  intrusted  with  the  military  operations 
against  them,  wrote  that  they  were  stark  mad  on  the 
subject  of  religion.  "  The  first  little  boy,  or  little  girl 
that  falls  a-trembhng,  and  declares  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
is  speaking  to  it,  all  the  people  believe  it,  and  if  God 
with  all  his  angels  were  to  come  and  speak  to  them  they 
would  not  believe  it  more ;  people,  moreover,  on  whom 
the  penalty  of  death  makes  not  the  least  impression ;  in 
battle  they  thank  those  who  inflict  it  on  them ;  they  walk 
to  execution  singing  the  praises  of  God  and  exhorting  those 
present  insomuch  that  it  has  often  been  necessary  to  sur- 
round the  criminals  with  drums  to  prevent  the  pernicious 
effect  of  their  speeches."  It  was  no  slight  undertaking 
to  subdue  such  a  people.     But  by  and  by  their  resources 


66       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

were  exhausted.  Marshal  Villars  had  chivalry  enough  in 
his  bosom  to  admire  the  noble  spirit  of  the  young  leader, 
and  granted  him  favorable  terms.  A  remnant  refused  to 
surrender,  and  for  some  years  longer  continued  a  kind  of 
guerrilla  warfare  in  parts  of  the  Cevennes. 

A  New  Leader  and  a  Great  Revival. — It  looked  for  a 
time  as  if  the  king  had  at  length  accomplished  the  task 
of  exterminating  heresy,  and  only  a  few  years  after  the 
close  of  the  Camisard  Wars,  he  issued  a  proclamation 
saying  that  his  kingdom  was  free  from  Protestantism. 
This  was  in  17 15,  the  last  year  of  his  reign;  but  instead 
of  marking  the  end  of  Protestantism,  it  marked  the  begin- 
ning of  its  most  remarkable  revival.  Louis  XIV  closed 
his  eyes  for  the  last  time  on  all  the  scenes  of  his  earthly 
glory  on  the  1st  of  September,  171 5.  Just  ten  days  be- 
fore that,  August  2 1st,  there  met  under  the  leadership  of 
Antoine  Court  a  few  representatives,  pastors  and  laymen, 
of  the  fragments  of  the  Reformed  Church  that  still  sur- 
vived in  the  Cevennes.  They  met  at  sunrise  near  Nimes, 
and  proceeded  to  organize  "  The  Church  of  the  Desert." 
They  revived  congregational  organizations  wherever  a 
handful  of  faithful  ones  could  be  found.  The  few 
preachers  divided  up  the  territory,  and  visited,  instructed 
and  comforted  the  feeble  and  scattered  flocks  as  best 
they  could.  In  a  few  years,  working  quietly,  persistently, 
and  in  the  midst  of  constant  perils,  they  demonstrated 
on  a  considerable  scale  the  mistake  of  the  Grand  Mon- 
arch. So  far  was  heresy  from  being  exterminated  that 
it  could  muster  under  cover  of  darkness  assemblies  num- 
bering three  thousand.  In  Languedoc  there  were  one 
hundred  and  twenty  parishes,  and  in  this  province  and 
Dauphine  the  evangelicals  numbered  about  two  hundred 
thousand.     The  policy  of  persecution  was  kept  up  by 


FRANCE  67 

the  successors  of  Louis.  Meetings  of  the  Protestants 
were  surprised,  and  the  men  were  sent  to  the  galleys, 
and  the  women  to  prison.  Houses  and  villages  were 
razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  pastors  if  apprehended 
were  put  to  death.  But  the  Church  of  the  Desert  con- 
tinued to  grow.  Antoine  Court,  who  ranks  among  the 
great  heroes  of  Huguenot  history  was  constrained  to 
spend  a  good  part  of  his  life  in  exile.  He  founded  a 
school  at  Lausanne  in  Switzerland,  where  he  never  ceased 
to  labor  for  his  beloved  Church  by  training  and  sending 
to  her  a  much-needed  ministry.  By  the  year  1763,  the 
Church  had  sixty-two  preachers  and  its  growth  had  been 
such  as  to  force  on  the  rulers  of  France  the  conviction 
that  perhaps  after  all  the  policy  of  persecution  was  a 
failure,  and  had  therefore  better  be  abandoned. 

Toleration  Granted.— Voltaire  indirectly  did  the 
Protestants  a  great  service.  Jean  Calas,  a  Protestant 
noble,  had  been  prosecuted,  tortured  and  finally  executed 
on  the  preposterous  charge  of  having  strangled  his  eldest 
son.  The  only  ground  for  the  accusation  was  that  this 
son  wished  to  go  over  to  the  Catholic  Church.  Voltaire 
met  the  widow  of  Calas  a  few  years  afterwards,  and  be- 
coming interested  in  her  sorrow  secured  a  revision  of  the 
trial.  Fifty  judges  after  careful  investigation  pronounced 
the  father  entirely  innocent.  Using  this  outrage  on 
justice  as  a  text  Voltaire  aroused  a  storm  of  indignation 
against  the  corrupt  and  persecuting  clergy.  It  was  a 
good  text,  and  he  made  such  effective  use  of  it  that  the 
whole  of  France  was  soon  informed  of  the  iniquity. 
This  was  in  the  year  1762.  It  was  twenty-five  years 
later  that  Lafayette,  who  had  become  inspired  with  the 
spirit  of  liberty  while  helping  the  Americans  to  gain 
their  independence,  began  to  move  for  the  legal  recogni- 


68       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

tion  of  the  right  of  reHgious  dissent  and  his  efforts  re- 
sulted in  a  formal  edict  of  toleration.  This  point  was 
reached  however  against  the  earnest  protest  of  the 
Catholic  clergy.  In  1789,  they  presented  a  report  in 
which  they  say,  speaking  of  the  Protestants,  "  This 
sect,  which  in  the  midst  of  its  ruins  preserves  the  spirit 
of  audacity  and  independence  which  it  has  shown  from 
the  beginning,  wishes  to  arrogate  for  falsehood  the  rights 
which  belong  only  to  truth.  It  presumes  to  demand  a 
civil  and  religious  existence ;  hence  the  necessity  of 
vigorously  resisting  aU  its  efforts."  Truly  it  was  a 
strange  audacity  on  the  part  of  the  Protestants  that  they 
should  demand  the  privilege  of  existence !  Despite  the 
exhortations  of  their  enemies  that  this  privilege  should 
be  denied  them,  they  were  permitted  to  live.  This  was 
about  the  extent  of  the  state's  concession,  but  this  was 
immeasurably  better  than  the  dragonnades,  the  galleys 
and  the  fire. 

The  French  Revolution. — The  year  1789  is  one  never 
to  be  forgotten.  The  gorgeous  extravagance  of  Louis 
XIV,  the  wasteful  prodigality  of  his  feeble  successors, 
and  the  rapacity  of  a  luxurious  and  profligate  priesthood 
had  brought  the  nation  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  The 
public  coffers  were  empty,  and  the  government  was  at 
the  end  of  its  resources.  One  third  of  the  landed 
property  was  owned  by  the  Church  and  this  was  largely 
exempt  from  taxation.  The  oppressed  people  had 
carried  the  double  burden  of  state  and  Church  until  they 
could  carry  it  no  further.  The  thrift  and  energy  of  the 
Huguenots  would  have  stood  the  nation  in  good  stead  at 
this  critical  time.  Rather  we  may  say  this  critical  time 
would  never  have  come  had  not  this  substantial  element 
of  the  population  been  driven  out.     Their  moral  stamina 


FRANCE  69 

was  needed  even  more  than  their  financial  help.  Had 
the  Reformed  Church  been  permitted  a  normal  develop- 
ment not  only  would  she  have  furnished  in  her  own 
membership  a  powerful  conservative  force  to  withstand 
the  evil  influences  that  brought  such  sorrow  and  disaster 
during  the  period  of  revolution,  but  her  great  rival,  the 
Papal  Church  would  have  kept  herself  from  such  a 
career  of  shame. 

Calling  of  the  States-general. — In  the  nation's  dire 
extremity,  the  king  summoned  the  States-general,  i.  e., 
an  assembly  composed  of  representatives  of  all  the  estates 
of  the  realm,  the  nobles,  the  clergy,  and  the  common 
people.  Such  a  thing  had  not  been  done  for  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-five  years.  So  long  as  king,  and  clergy 
and  nobles  could  indulge  themselves  in  the  wildest  excess 
of  luxury,  they  did  not  concern  themselves  about  the 
under  crust.  The  delegates  of  the  third  estate,  as  the 
commons  were  called,  outnumbered  the  representatives 
from  both  the  other  orders.  To  prevent  their  exercising 
an  absolute  authority,  the  nobles  and  clergy  proposed 
that  each  estate  should  vote  separately  and  that  no 
measure  should  carry  without  receiving  the  votes  of  two 
estates.  They  hoped  by  combining  to  control  the 
assembly.  But  the  third  estate  demanded  that  the 
assembly  should  vote  as  individuals,  and  the  majority 
carry  the  day.  They  succeeded  after  a  protracted  struggle 
in  enforcing  their  demand.  This  put  them  in  complete 
control.  The  third  estate,  which  began  by  being  noth- 
ing, ended  by  being  everything.  They  had  some  able 
and  fearless  leaders.  One  of  these,  Talleyrand  Perigord, 
came  over  to  them  from  the  ranks  of  the  clergy.  It  was 
on  his  motion  that  the  States-general,  after  discussing 
various  methods    for   raising  money,  finally  decided  to 


70       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

confiscate  the  property  of  the  Church.  By  this  act  they 
put  ^^40,000,000  of  annual  income  into  the  treasury  of  the 
state.  The  clergy  opposed,  as  a  matter  of  course,  but 
their  opposings  availed  naught.  The  assembly  proceeded 
to  divide  the  Church  up  into  dioceses  and  parishes, 
decreed  that  the  people  had  a  right  to  call  their  own 
bishops  and  pastors,  and  set  aside  a  modest  salary  for 
them  out  of  the  revenues  of  the  confiscated  property. 
The  state  had  served  the  Church  long  enough  ;  now  the 
Church  must  serve  the  state.  The  clergy  were  required 
to  take  an  oath  to  the  new  constitution.  The  Pope 
forbade  their  doing  this.  Many  refused  and  left  the 
country. 

The  Reign  of  Terror. — The  sentiments  of  justice  and 
humanity  which  seem  to  have  animated  the  States- 
general  in  the  early  part  of  its  movements  gave  place,  by 
and  by,  to  impracticable  theories  of  government.  The 
people,  so  long  oppressed  and  their  rights  utterly  ignored, 
finding  themselves  complete  masters  were  intoxicated 
with  the  idea  of  power.  They  apparently  taxed  their 
wits  for  new  and  novel  ways  to  exercise  it.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1792,  they  declared  France  a  Republic.  In 
January  of  the  next  year  they  beheaded  the  king,  and 
inaugurated  the  "  Reign  of  Terror."  Christianity  was 
abolished.  The  calendar  was  changed,  and  the  birthday 
of  the  Republic,  September  23d,  1792,  selected  to  mark 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era.  The  Sabbath  was  abrogated 
and  for  a  week  of  seven  days,  they  substituted  a  week  of 
ten  days.  They  parceled  thirty  days  to  the  month,  and 
the  five  supernumerary  days  were  set  apart  as  holidays. 
For  eighteen  months  not  a  church  in  France  opened  its 
doors  to  worshipers.  In  Notre  Dame,  Paris,  the  God- 
dess of  Reason  was  enthroned  in  the  person  of  a  profligate 


FRANCE  71 

woman,  dressed  in  the  classic  costume  of  ancient  Greece. 
France  reveled  in  Atheism  and  blood,  and  gave  the 
world  proof  that  only  a  little  while  would  be  required  for 
unrestrained  wickedness  to  make  a  hell  of  earth.  In 
1795  the  land  began  to  awake  from  its  horrible  night- 
mare, and  the  churches  were  opened  again.  From  this 
date  the  Huguenot  Church,  having  survived  two  centuries 
of  strenuous  endeavor  to  exterminate  it,  has  enjoyed  free- 
dom of  worship. 

Since  the  Revolution. — During  the  rule  of  Napoleon, 
the  Reformed  Church,  hke  every  other  institution  felt 
the  weight  of  his  iron  hand.  He  tampered  with  its  gov- 
ernment, and  shaped  it  to  suit  his  pecuHar  notions.  His 
special  concern  was  to  see  that  its  national  unity  was 
completely  broken  up.  It  has  had  no  unity  since  his 
day.  In  1848,  the  scattered  communities  came  together, 
and  tried  to  find  a  common  basis  and  a  common  bond. 
Divergent  views  had  grown  up,  and  the  confession 
framed  in  1559  would  no  longer  serve  to  bind  them 
together.  Discussion  led  to  alienation.  A  formal  seces- 
sion took  place  under  the  lead  of  Frederick  Monod. 
Those  who  left  the  old  Church  formed  themselves  into  an 
organization  known  as  the  Union  of  the  Free  Evangelical 
Churches  of  France.  They  inherit  the  pure  evangelical 
faith  of  the  fathers.  At  present  they  number  only  3,665 
communicants.  The  party  that  adhered  to  the  historic 
pohty  represents  the  continuity  of  the  Huguenot  Church. 
There  is  reason  to  regret  the  laxity  of  doctrine  that  pre- 
vails among  them,  but  He  who  was  with  them  in  the 
furnace,  and  brought  them  out  despite  its  terrible  heat, 
must  have  a  grand  mission  for  them.  They  number 
800,000  adherents,  a  mighty  host  when  it  is  con- 
sidered of  what  temper  they  are. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  NETHERLANDS 

This  name  designates  a  strip  of  flat  land  in  the  north- 
west of  Europe.  Centuries  ago  it  was  one  vast  quagmire 
where  the  Rhine  and  the  Meuse  had  been  emptying  their 
sHme  for  untold  ages.  Part  of  it  was  submerged  by  the 
ocean  at  high  tide,  and  all  of  it  was  subject  to  the  fre- 
quent overflow  of  these  rivers.  Here  and  there,  how- 
ever, were  islands,  slightly  elevated  above  the  yielding 
ooze,  on  which  dwelt  numerous  tribes  of  hardy  and 
savage  people.  When  the  light  of  Christian  civilization 
penetrated  their  darkened  minds,  and  they  came  to  feel 
the  need  of  a  change  in  their  mode  of  hving,  they  began 
the  arduous  work  of  redeeming  their  land  from  marsh  by 
an  extensive  system  of  drainage,  and  of  protecting  it 
from  the  overflow  of  the  ocean  by  a  bulwark  of  sand- 
banks. These  latter  are  called  dikes,  and  were  first  built 
at  a  cost  of  ^15,000,000,  and  are  kept  in  repair  at  an 
annual  outlay  of  ;^2,ooo,ooo.  The  land  thus  reclaimed 
from  rivers  and  ocean  at  such  expense  has  proved, 
nevertheless,  a  good  investment.  At  an  early  day  its 
luxuriant  meadows  and  ample  harvests  were  capable  of 
sustaining  a  numerous  population,  and  in  the  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Netherlanders  were,  perhaps, 
the  most  prosperous  people  of  Europe.  They  had  built 
up  350  flourishing  cities,  fed  by  their  own  agriculture,  and 
fostered  and  enriched  by  a  commerce  extending  to  all 
parts  of  the  world.     Some  of  these  cities  were  very  large 

72 


THE  NETHERLANDS  73 

for  that  age,  Antwerp,  with  its  100,000  inhabitants, 
being  no  mean  rival  of  London.  The  people  were 
noted  not  alone  for  thrift  and  wealth,  but  also  for  their 
intelligence  and  their  spirit  of  independence.  They 
enjoyed  an  unusual  measure  of  local  self-government, 
their  cities  having  secured  charters  which  granted 
them  the  privilege  of  managing  their  own  affairs 
in  their  own  way.  Learning  was  much  more  generally 
diffused  than  in  most  countries  of  Christendom.  While 
the  useful  accomplishments  of  reading  and  writing  were 
elsewhere  confined,  as  a  rule,  to  those  of  noble  birth,  and 
elegant  leisure,  they  were  here  possessed  by  the  artisan 
at  his  loom,  the  husbandman  at  his  plow,  and  the  fisher- 
man in  his  boat.  If  "  ignorance  is  the  mother  of  de- 
votion," it  is  only  when  devotion  means  bhnd  sub- 
mission to  priestcraft,  and  bondage  to  absurd  super- 
stition. Intelligence  is  the  best  preparation  for  receiving 
the  reasonable  doctrines  preached  by  Christ  and  his 
apostles.  Hence  the  revolt  in  the  Netherlands  against 
Rome  began  early  and  rapidly  developed  into  irresistible 
dimensions. 

Union  of  Church  and  State. — In  the  Netherlands  as 
elsewhere,  rehgious  and  political  questions  were  inextri- 
cably interwoven.  For  centuries  Church  and  state, 
throughout  all  Christendom,  had  been  bound  together 
by  innumerable  legal  bonds.  It  was  supposed  to  be  the 
supreme  duty  of  the  civil  power  to  render  effective  the 
decrees  of  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  especially  to  repress 
all  revolt  against  ecclesiastical  dogmas.  It  belonged  to 
the  Church  to  define  orthodoxy,  and  to  the  state  to  de- 
fend it.  To  depart  from  the  prescribed  faith  was  to 
come  into  collision  with  both  powers.  Freedom  from 
the  papacy  could  be  secured  only  by  breaking  every  tie 


74       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  allegiance  to  the  powers  controlled  by  the  Pope.  For 
this  reason  the  history  of  the  Reformation  in  the  Nether- 
lands is  the  history  of  a  struggle,  not  only  against  spiritual 
despotism,  but  also  against  political  tyranny.  Further- 
more, it  is  the  history  of  one  of  the  most  heroic  struggles 
that  has  ever  been  waged  by  any  people.  The  courage, 
the  patient  endurance,  and  the  invincible  persistence  dis- 
played by  the  Netherlanders,  during  a  war  that  stretched 
its  bloody  horrors  through  forty  long  years  can  hardly  be 
paralleled  in  all  the  annals  of  the  past.  The  thrilling 
story,  as  told  in  Motley's  graphic  pages,  stirs  the  blood  to 
fever  heat,  and  awakens  a  fervent  gratitude  toward  that 
noble  people  who  taught  their  own  and  after  ages  how  to 
prize  the  inalienable  rights  of  man.  It  looked  at  times 
as  if  they  might  be  exterminated ;  it  never  looked  at  any 
time  as  if  they  might  be  subjugated.  They  knew  how 
to  suffer  the  worst  that  war  could  bring,  how  to  meet 
death  in  any  form,  on  the  battlefield,  at  the  stake,  or  by 
starvation  in  the  straitness  of  the  siege,  but  they  did  not 
know,  and  would  not  learn  how  to  confess  defeat.  With 
meager  resources  in  money  and  men,  with  little  military 
discipline,  and  no  experienced  captains,  save  their  one 
great  leader,  they  baffled  all  the  assaults  of  the  greatest 
power  among  the  nations,  exhausted  its  expedients  and 
finally  won  absolute  independence. 

Charles  V. — The  movement  for  reform  began  in  the 
Netherlands  at  a  time  of  all  others  the  least  auspicious. 
The  country  was  held  as  a  part  of  the  hereditary  posses- 
sions of  Charles  V.  Since  the  days  of  Charlemagne,  no 
monarch  had  ruled  so  vast  an  empire  as  that  over  which 
Charles  held  sway.  By  right  of  birth,  he  was  King  of 
Spain,  Naples,  Sicily  and  Jerusalem,  Duke  of  Milan,  and 
Count  of  the  Netherlands ;   by  right  of  election,  Em- 


THE  NETHERLANDS  75 

peror  of  Germany  and  by  the  gift  of  the  Pope  to  his 
grandfather,  Dominator  of  the  New  World  extending  as 
far  westward  as   men  had  yet  dared  to  travel.     He  was 

fully   imbued   with   the   idea   common  to   his   age that 

kings  rule  by  divine  right  and  that  the  only  divine  right 
belonging  to  subjects  is  the  right  of  obedience.  It  was 
his  prerogative  to  rule  the  souls  as  well  as  the  bodies  of 
men.  Being  himself  an  intense  Roman  Catholic,  he 
reckoned  that  all  his  subjects  were  under  obligation  to  be 
Catholics.  If  they  would  not  voluntarily  think  as  he 
thought  on  the  subject  of  religion  they  must  be  made  to 
think  that  way.  His  very  earnest  purpose  was  to  have  no 
freedom  of  rehgious  thought  in  all  his  vast  dominions. 
He  deemed  it  a  matter  amply  worth  going  to  war  about. 
Indeed  he  thought  that  there  was  no  way  in  which  the 
blood  and  treasure  of  his  kingdom  could  be  so  well  ex- 
pended, even  to  the  last  drop  and  the  last  dollar,  if  need 
be,  as  in  suppressing  dissent  from  the  Catholic  faith. 
How  unfortunate  for  the  Netherlands,  this  little  corner  of 
his  empire,  that  it  should  wish  a  somewhat  larger  latitude 
of  belief  just  when  the  power,  to  which  it  owed  alle- 
giance, was  in  such  strong  hands. 

Beginning  of  Hostility.— Charles  had  shown  already 
by  his  efforts  to  crush  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  what 
his  attitude  would  be  toward  a  similar  movement  in  the 
Low  Countries.  He  was  less  hindered  here  than  in 
Germany  where  his  sway  was  embarrassed  by  the  power- 
ful princes  and  nobles  who  ruled  under  him,  and  who 
had  some  hereditary  rights  which  he  could  not  altogether 
ignore.  By  so  much  as  his  will  was  thwarted  in  Ger- 
many, by  so  much  was  he  the  more  determined  to  have 
his  way  where  he  supposed  his  will  was  supreme.  He 
had  the  ban  against  Luther,  passed  by  the  Diet  of  Worms 


76       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

in  1 52 1,  published  in  the  Netherlands,  and  along  with  it 
an  edict  for  the  suppression  of  any  outcropping  of  Lu- 
theranism  in  that  country.  He  was  none  too  early,  for 
already  the  contagion  of  the  new  faith  had  begun  to 
show  itself.  It  had  been  brought  in  by  Swiss  and  Ger- 
man soldiers  who  had  been  employed  by  Charles  in  his 
military  operations,  and  also  by  foreign  merchants,  who 
along  with  other  commodities  brought  this  in  and  offered 
it  without  money  and  without  price. 

The  First  Victims. — On  the  first  of  July,  1523,  two 
Augustinian  monks,  having  shown  that  they  were  hope- 
lessly enthralled  by  the  evangelical  doctrines  which  were 
being  preached  at  Wittenberg  by  their  fellow  Augustin- 
ian, were  tied  to  stakes  and  burnt  at  Brussels.  By  con- 
senting to  be  thus  tied  and  burned  Henry  Voes  and  John 
Esch  purchased  the  right  to  have  their  names  transmitted 
to  the  remotest  posterity.  This  kindling  of  martyr  fires 
served  notice  on  the  Netherlanders  that  their  royal  master 
was  terribly  in  earnest,  and  that  no  delicate  sensibilities 
would  prevent  his  discharging  to  the  fullest  the  sacred 
duty  which  he  owed  to  the  Church. 

Rule  by  Regents. — Charles'  dominions  were  too  vast 
for  him  to  give  his  personal  attention  to  every  part  of 
them.  He  was  bound  to  leave  largely  to  others  the  exe- 
cution of  his  will.  In  the  Netherlands  he  intrusted  to 
his  aunt,  Margaret  of  Savoy,  the  pleasant  task  of  carry- 
ing into  effect  his  pious  and  sanguinary  "  placards,"  as 
they  were  called,  against  heretics.  It  seems  not  to  have 
afforded  his  aunt  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  to  burn  the 
troublesome  Calvinists,  and  consequently  she  did  not  dis- 
charge her  duty  very  efficiently.  On  her  death,  Charles 
with  that  tender  regard  for  his  family  which  ever  char- 
acterized  him,  appointed  his  sister  Maria,  the  widowed 


THE  NETHERLANDS  77 

queen  of  Hungary,  to  succeed  her.  The  burning  of  Hve 
human  flesh  on  account  of  errors  in  religion  proved  not 
to  be  to  her  taste,  and  so  she  was  less  faithful  than  her 
aunt  had  been.  As  a  result  of  this  leniency,  the  out- 
lawed opinions,  pressing  over  the  borders  both  from 
Germany  on  the  north,  and  from  France  on  the  south, 
spread  at  a  rapid  rate.  It  was  soon  discovered  that  these 
opinions,  coming  from  opposite  directions,  were  not  ex- 
actly the  same.  They  differed  especially  and  widely  on 
the  subject  of  the  sacraments.  When  the  difference  was 
clearly  defined,  the  Dutch  people  showed  a  decided  pref- 
erence for  the  views  of  Calvin.  Hence  Calvinism  instead 
of  Lutheranism  was  the  type  of  the  Reformed  faith 
that  had  to  fight  for  existence  against  the  destructive 
efforts  of  Charles.  It  was  peculiarly  fortunate  that  it  had 
an  opportunity  to  travel  far  and  take  deep  root  before 
encountering  the  awful  stress  of  conflict  which  came  on 
later.  Let  it  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  "  leniency  " 
means  that  the  regents  permitted  the  fires  of  persecution 
to  die  out  entirely.  So  far  from  it,  they  furnished  ample 
opportunity  for  martyrdoms.  In  the  meanwhile  the 
Anabaptists,  a  name  covering  a  great  variety  of  charac- 
ters, from  true  and  noble  Christians  down  to  disreputable 
and  disorderly  fanatics,  offered  occasion  by  their  excesses 
for  Charles  to  issue  from  time  to  time  fresh  placards  of 
growing  severity.  In  a  blood-curdling  one  which  he 
published  in  1550,  he  made  significant  reference  to  "  In- 
quisitors of  the  Faith."  This  greatly  alarmed  the  people 
as  they  saw  in  it  a  prospect  that  the  famous  Inquisition 
which  had  recently  done  such  splendid  work  in  Spain  for 
the  maintenance  of  good  order  in  Church  and  state 
might  be  introduced  for  the  same  purpose  into  the  Neth- 


78       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

eriands.  Merchants  prepared  to  emigrate,  trade  and 
commerce  received  a  violent  shock. 

The  reign  of  Charles,  however,  was  drawing  near  its 
end.  The  number  of  martyrs  for  whose  death  he  was 
responsible  has  been  variously  estimated,  ranging  from 
thirty  to  one  hundred  thousand.  Taking  even  the  lowest 
figure,  thirty  thousand,  it  might  be  supposed  that  the 
Netherlanders  had  no  tears  to  shed  over  the  termination 
of  his  reign,  and  yet  they  did  shed  tears  in  great  abun- 
dance. 

Resignation  of  Charles  V. — This  greatest  ruler  of  his 
age  was  a  great  glutton,  and  grossly  sensual  in  other  re- 
spects. He  paid  the  penalty  by  suffering  from  the  gout, 
and  by  premature  old  age.  In  1555,  the  burdens  of  em- 
pire had  become  too  heavy  for  his  racked  and  wrecked 
body,  and  although  only  fifty-five  years  and  eight  months 
old,  he  transferred  the  scepter  to  his  son  Philip  II,  in  or- 
der that  he  might  devote  the  remainder  of  his  life  to  re- 
ligious retirement  in  a  monastery.  Much  he  needed  the 
retirement,  but  unfortunately  he  carried  with  him  his  old 
habits,  and  consequently  kept  his  old  maladies.  Nor  did 
he  withdraw  his  mind  from  the  great,  busy,  sinful  world. 
His  hatred  of  heretics  grew  more  intense,  and  he  did  his 
soul  a  gratuitous  injury  by  regretting  that  he  had  not 
broken  faith  with  Luther  at  the  Diet  of  Worms  and  put 
to  death  the  man  who  had  given  the  world  so  much 
trouble.  So  far  was  he  from  repenting,  as  he  should  have 
done,  of  the  oppressions  and  cruelties  inflicted  on  the 
patient  and  loyal  Netherlanders,  that  he  rather  repented 
of  having  shown  so  little  zeal  in  the  extermination  of 
heretics. 

Philip  II. — Impartial  history  has  about  as  little  to  com- 
mend in  this  monarch  as  in  any  whose  name  she  has  pre- 


THE  NETHERLANDS  79 

served  for  us.  The  worst  enemy  of  his  father  could  find 
something  in  him  to  admire.  He  was  a  great  soldier, 
hardy  and  brave.  He  was  broad  of  shoulder,  strong  of 
limb  and  able  to  hold  his  own  in  tourney  with  the  stur- 
diest knights  of  his  time.  But  Philip's  best  friend  can  find 
nothing  in  him  to  admire,  either  in  mind  or  body.  His 
mind  was  only  broad  enough  for  a  few  inherited  ideas ; 
and  his  body  was  frail  and  diminutive,  incapable  of  manly 
sports,  or  of  warlike  achievements.  His  appearance  was 
unattractive,  his  spirit  selfish,  and  his  nature  cold  and 
cruel.  He  was  united  to  Mary  Tudor,  queen  of  Eng- 
land, on  the  25th  of  July,  1554,  "and  if  congeniality  of 
tastes,"  says  Motley,  •*  could  have  made  a  marriage  happy, 
that  union  should  have  been  thrice  blessed.  To  main- 
tain the  supremacy  of  the  Church  seemed  to  both  the 
main  object  of  existence,  to  execute  unbelievers  the  most 
sacred  duty  imposed  by  the  Deity  upon  anointed  prin- 
ces, to  convert  their  kingdoms  into  a  hell  the  surest 
means  of  winning  heaven  for  themselves." 

Beginnings  of  the  New  Reign.— We  may  easily  believe 
that  to  the  bigoted  and  atrabilious  Philip,  the  task  left 
incompleted  by  his  father  was  congenial.  It  furnished 
him  a  fine  field  for  the  cultivation  and  exploitation  of  his 
piety.  Sure  it  is  that  he  took  up  the  work  in  the  Neth- 
erlands with  great  zeal,  and  he  found  plenty  to  do.  De- 
spite the  burnings  and  hangings  and  buryings  alive,  there 
was  a  large  crop  of  heretics  left,  and  they  were  still  mul- 
tiplying rapidly.  In  the  language  of  a  Catholic  writer : 
"  Nor  did  the  Rhine  from  Germany,  or  the  Meuse  from 
France  send  more  water  into  the  Low  Countries,  than  by 
the  one  the  contagion  of  Luther,  and  by  the  other  that 
of  Calvin  were  imported  into  the  same  Belgic  provinces." 
Philip,  in  order  to    tighten  the  grip  of  the  Church,  not  on 


8o       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  hearts,  but  on  the  necks  of  the  people,  increased  the 
number  of  bishops.  Hitherto  four  had  been  deemed  suf- 
ficient to  administer  the  affairs  of  the  seventeen  provinces. 
He  added  ten  to  this  number,  making  the  total  fourteen. 
His  aunt  having  resigned  the  regency  on  the  abdication 
of  her  brother,  the  emperor,  Philip  appointed  in  her  place 
his  half  sister,  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Parma,  and  gave  her 
for  principal  counselor  the  most  astute  of  the  Spanish 
bishops,  Cardinal  Granvella.  These  measures  were  all 
offensive  to  the  Netherlanders.  Increasing  the  number 
of  bishops  decreased  the  power  of  the  secular  princes,  for 
the  reason  that  the  bishops  had  seats  in  the  civil  council. 
The  appointment  of  Margaret  was  a  slight  put  upon  the 
native  nobles ;  and  the  exaltation  of  Cardinal  Granvella 
was  a  notification  that  strenuous  efforts  would  be  made  to 
bring  the  Netherlands  as  completely  under  the  domina- 
tion of  the  papacy  as  the  Pope  himself  could  wish.  He 
was  a  man  of  affairs,  and  of  great  ability,  but  his  supreme 
qualification  for  the  position  assigned  him  was  his  devo- 
tion to  his  master's  poHcy,  and  complete  sympathy  with 
his  master's  intolerant  spirit. 

Republishing  the  Edict  of  1550. — Philip  began  his  ad- 
ministration by  republishing  the  placard  of  1550.  He 
was  at  pains  to  have  it  understood  that  he  was  merely 
carrying  out  the  policy  of  his  father.  He  was  not  intro- 
ducing an  innovation,  but  following  in  the  footsteps  of 
one  whose  clemency  had  made  him  popular  with  his 
Dutch  subjects.  It  may  be  well  to  look  at  this  placard 
by  way  of  getting  a  clear  idea  of  Charles'  clemency. 
Translated  by  an  eminent  authority,  it  reads  as  follows : 
"  No  one  shall  print,  write,  copy,  keep,  conceal,  sell,  buy 
or  give  in  churches,  streets,  or  other  places  any  book  or 
writing   made  by   Martin   Luther,  John  CEcolampadius, 


THE  NETHERLANDS  8i 

Ulrich  Zvvingli,  Martin  Bucer,  John  Calvin,  or  other 
heretics  reprobated  by  the  Holy  Church  ;  nor  break  or 
otherwise  injure  the  images  of  the  holy  virgin  or  canon- 
ized saints  ;  nor  in  his  house,  hold  conventicles,  or  illegal 
gatherings,  or  be  present  at  any  such  in  which  the  ad- 
herents of  the  above-mentioned  heretics  teach,  baptize, 
and  form  conspiracies  against  the  Holy  Church  and  the 
general  welfare.  Moreover,  we  forbid  all  lay  persons  to 
converse  or  dispute  concerning  the  holy  Scriptures,  openly 
or  secretly,  especially  on  any  doubtful  or  difficult  matters, 
or  to  read,  teach,  or  expound  the  Scriptures,  unless  they 
have  duly  studied  theology  and  been  approved  by  some 
renowned  university ;  or  to  preach  secretly  or  openly,  or 
to  entertain  any  of  the  opinions  of  the  above-mentioned 
heretics ;  on  pain  should  any  one  be  found  to  have  con- 
travened any  of  the  points  above  mentioned  as  perturba- 
tors  of  our  state  and  of  the  general  quiet,  to  be  punished 
in  the  following  manner,  viz., — the  men  with  the  sword, 
and  the  women  to  be  buried  alive,  if  they  do  not  persist 
in  their  errors ;  if  they  do  persist  in  them  then  they  are 
to  be  executed  with  fire ;  all  their  property  in  both  cases 
being  confiscated  to  the  crown."  The  clemency  of  this 
edict  consists  in  the  merciful  consideration  shown  to  the 
penitent  heretic.  If  a  man,  he  was  gently  dispatched  by 
the  sword ;  if  a  woman,  she  was  tenderly  buried  alive ; 
and  thus  they  both  escaped  the  cruel  agony  of  the  flames. 
It  can  hardly  be  supposed  that  with  this  inducement 
held  out  to  them  any  heretics  died  unrepentant. 

Philip  II  Returns  to  Spain. — After  organizing  his  gov- 
ernment, and  getting  everything  in  running  order,  Philip 
left  the  Netherlands  and  never  came  again  to  see  his  be- 
loved subjects,  over  whose  religious  interests  he  watched 
with  such  kindly  concern.     On  his  return  to  his  native 


82       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

country  of  Spain,  his  loving  people  prepared  him  a  re- 
ception to  his  taste.  It  was  an  auto  daf'c,  a  kind  of  re- 
ligious festival  in  which  thirteen  heretics,  clothed  in  yel- 
low gowns,  decorated  with  red  devils,  were  burnt  with 
much  ceremony.  As  one  of  the  victims,  a  young  man 
of  noble  birth,  and  distinguished  ability,  passed  the  king 
on  his  way  to  the  stake,  he  asked, "  How  can  you  look  on 
and  permit  me  to  be  burnt?"  To  which  Philip  replied, 
"  I  would  carry  the  wood  to  burn  my  own  son,  were 
he  as  wicked  as  you."  Perhaps  the  Netherlanders  acted 
wisely  to  shed  tears  over  the  abdication  of  Charles  V. 

Persecution  Must  be  Pressed. — Philip  gave  stringent 
orders  that  the  famous  placard  of  1550  should  be  faith- 
fully executed.  He  said  that  he  would  rather  suffer  a 
hundred  thousand  deaths  than  to  suffer  the  slightest  devi- 
ation from  the  standards  of  the  Catholic  Church.  His 
sister  Margaret  was  not  a  bad  choice  to  superintend  and 
hasten  the  business  in  hand.  The  fact  that  she  was  Phil- 
ip's sister  furnished  a  strong  guarantee  of  special  quali- 
fications for  such  work.  In  addition  to  possessing  hered- 
itary gifts  for  the  exercise  of  tyranny,  she  had  enjoyed 
the  benefit  of  having  no  less  a  personage  than  Ignatius 
de  Loyola,  founder  of  the  Jesuit  order,  for  her  father  con- 
fessor and  spiritual  guide.  Under  such  tuition  she  had 
well  learned  the  lesson  that  there  was  no  crime  equal  to 
heresy  and  no  work  so  meritorious  as  burning  heretics. 

Discontent  Growing. — It  might  have  been  foreseen 
that  heretics  would  be  so  unreasonable  as  to  seriously 
object  to  being  burnt,  or  even  to  being  executed  by  the 
mild  method  of  the  sword,  or  by  the  yet  gentler  process 
of  being  buried  alive.  But  they  were  not  the  only  ones 
to  object  to  the  arbitrary  proceedings  of  the  king. 
Without  regard  to  religious  differences,  the  people  looked 


THE  NETHERLANDS  83 

with  disfavor  on  the  assumption  that  a  man  of  foreign 
birth,  of  foreign  language,  of  foreign  customs  and  manner 
of  hfe  had  a  right  to  set  up  his  lone  will  as  the  supreme 
law  over  their  lives  and  property.  They  had  known  too 
much  in  the  past  of  local  self-government  to  relish  this 
assumption.  Moreover,  they  did  not  like  the  Spaniards 
any  too  well.  Especially  they  did  not  like  to  have 
Spanish  troops  quartered  on  them,  and  had  earnestly  en- 
treated Philip  to  send  them  back  to  Spain.  His  reluc- 
tance to  do  this  awakened  a  suspicion  that  he  meant  to 
use  them  for  the  purpose  of  making  his  power  absolute. 

A  Protest  by  the  Nobles. — After  a  few  thousand  here- 
tics had  been  put  to  death,  and  a  few  other  thousands 
had  been  driven  into  exile,  the  discontent  shaped  itself 
into  a  protest.  The  nobles,  to  the  number  of  five  hun- 
dred, banded  together  and  laid  before  the  regent  a  peti- 
tion, praying  for  a  redress  of  grievances.  The  duchess 
displayed  considerable  agitation  ;  whereupon  one  of  her 
counselors  exclaimed  :  •'  Madam,  are  you  afraid  of  a  pack 
of  beggars  ?  "  When  this  speech  was  reported  to  the 
authors  of  the  petition,  they  adopted  the  name,  "  Beg- 
gars," and  wore  it  as  a  badge  of  patriotism.  At  a  ban- 
quet, one  of  the  nobles  proposed  as  a  toast  the  sentiment, 
"  Long  live  the  Beggars ! "  Each  guest  drained  his 
goblet,  amid  shouts  of  "  Vivent  les  gueulx:'  And  thus 
"  for  the  first  time  from  the  lips  of  these  reckless  nobles 
rose  the  famous  cry,  which  was  so  often  to  ring  over 
land  and  sea,  amid  blazing  cities,  on  Wood-stained  decks, 
through  the  smoke  and  carnage  of  many  a  stricken  field." 

Notwithstanding  the  insulting  sarcasm  of  the  haughty 
counselor,  the  petition  bore  fruit.  The  government 
abated  the  severity  of  its  violence  against  heretics — it 
substituted  hanging  for  burning.     The  decree,  embody- 


84      HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

iiig  this  merciful  concession,  was  called  The  Moder- 
ation. The  ungrateful  wretches,  in  whose  behalf  it  was 
issued,  renamed  it  "  The  Murderation."  The  government 
was  disposed  to  be  accommodating,  but  it  seemed  that  it 
could  devise  no  way  of  destroying  heretics,  to  which  ob- 
jection would  not  be  taken. 

Events  of  the  Year  1566. — The  petition,  to  which 
reference  has  just  been  made,  belonged  to  this  year. 
One  month  after  this  significant  event,  the  Calvinists  of 
the  southern  provinces  met  in  convention  at  Antwerp. 
They  met  in  secret  but  in  considerable  numbers,  their 
object  was  to  lay  the  foundation  of  Church  organization. 
The  Reformed  faith  had  gained  such  a  footing  that  it 
seemed  necessary  to  take  steps  to  bind  its  scattered  ad- 
herents into  a  united  brotherhood.  Progress  toward  this 
end  was  made  by  this  convention.  Also  this  meeting 
together  stimulated  the  courage  of  the  Reformers,  which 
had  already  been  kindled  afresh  by  the  stand  of  the 
nobles  in  their  petition  to  the  regent.  Many  preachers 
came  forth  from  their  hiding  places  and  began  to  pro- 
claim their  message  openly  and  without  reserve.  Sud- 
denly field-preaching  developed  into  a  great  popular 
movement.  It  is  estimated  that  sometimes  as  many  as 
20,000  gathered  at  one  place  to  hear  the  new  doctrines 
expounded.  It  mattered  not  that  both  preacher  and 
hearers  were  incurring  the  death  penalty,  they  preached 
and  heard  with  growing  enthusiasm.  At  length  the  feel- 
ings evoked  by  these  meetings  could  no  longer  be  re- 
pressed. They  had  become  so  ardent  that  they  must 
have  an  outlet.  Arming  themselves  with  sticks  and 
clubs,  the  people  started  on  a  crusade,  not  against  fiesh 
and  blood,  however.  They  entered  churches,  smashed 
the  windows,  and  demolished  the  countless  images  that 


THE  NETHERLANDS  85 

had  become  the  chief  objects  of  worship.  They  were 
utterly  merciless.  They  even  entered  the  beautiful  Ca- 
thedral of  Antwerp,  and  made  a  hideous  wreck  of  its  vast 
collection  of  fine  art ;  the  statuary  was  broken,  the  pic- 
tures torn  from  the  walls,  the  gorgeous  windows  dashed 
to  pieces,  crucifixes  and  altars,  shattered  to  atoms.  They 
have  been  much  reproached  for  all  this  vandalism.  They 
no  doubt  did  show  a  lack  of  taste,  and  may  have  been 
wanting  in  aesthetic  culture.  Some,  however,  who  think 
that  human  life  is  more  sacred  than  chiseled  marble,  and 
painted  canvas,  are  disposed  to  compliment  their  moder- 
ation in  that  they  were  content  to  wage  a  warfare  against 
the  creations  of  artistic  genius  in  retaliation  for  the  blood 
of  kindred  which  had  been  so  freely  shed  by  the  image- 
worshipers. 

Serious  Consequences. — Whatever  may  be  said  in 
justification  or  palliation  of  this  outburst  of  iconoclasm, 
nothing  can  be  said  in  its  defense  on  the  ground  of  ex- 
pediency. It  was  an  outrage  on  religious  sentiment, 
false  and  foolish  no  doubt  the  sentiment  was,  but  the 
outrage  awakened  a  resentment  as  fierce  as  the  assault 
was  violent.  Many  Catholics  who  were  in  sympathy 
with  the  growing  opposition  to  Philip  and  his  Spaniards 
were  repelled  by  what  seemed  to  them  nothing  less  than 
sacrilegious  vandaHsm.  Philip,  of  course,  was  angry  be- 
yond measure  when  news  of  the  affair  reached  him.  In 
fact  he  was  never  able  to  see  why  the  people  received 
with  such  poor  grace  his  pious  efforts  to  save  them  from 
perdition  by  the  vigorous  use  of  the  halter  and  the  torch. 
This  audacious  resistance  to  his  divinely-delegated  au- 
thority must  be  dealt  with  promptly  and  properly.  To 
this  end  he  sent  the  Duke  of  Alva  with  a  choice  army  of 
10,000  veteran  troops.     The  duke  was  in   Italy  at  the 


86       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

time,  and  as  his  route  to  the  Netherlands  carried  him 
near  Geneva,  Pope  Pius  V  proposed  to  him  to  turn  aside 
and  destroy  that  *•  nest  of  devils  and  apostates."  Fortu- 
nately for  our  great  Calvin  and  his  colaborers,  who  were 
designated  by  these  complimentary  titles,  the  duke  could 
not  be  diverted  from  his  course.  When  he  reached  the 
Low  Countries,  the  gentle  Margaret  was  removed,  and 
the  whole  management  of  affairs  was  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  hardy  soldier.  He  at  once  organized  a  Council  of 
Disturbances,  the  object  of  which  was  to  bring  to  speedy 
justice  the  leaders  of  the  recent  uprising.  It  would  seem 
that  the  leaders  must  have  been  very  numerous,  for  this 
council  had,  at  the  end  of  three  months,  put  to  death 
1, 800  persons.  Those  who  witnessed  the  efficiency  of 
this  machinery  for  administering  justice  renamed  it  •*  The 
Council  of  Blood."  But  the  methods  of  the  council  were 
still  too  slow  to  satisfy  the  zeal  of  the  king,  and  so  an 
edict  was  issued  condemning  all  the  Netherlanders  to 
death,  with  a  few  specified  exceptions.  It  seemed  much 
simpler  to  pick  out  the  few  who  deserved  to  live  than  to 
prosecute  and  convict  the  many  who  deserved  to  die. 

William  of  Orange. — Even  the  king's  readiness  to 
promote  the  spiritual  welfare  of  his  subjects  by  hanging 
them  all  failed  to  secure  their  approbation.  And  being 
unwilling  to  testify  their  loyalty  by  quietly  submitting  to 
strangulation,  their  only  alternative  was  to  fight.  The 
Lord  had  provided  a  man  for  the  occasion.  The  name 
of  **  William  the  Silent,"  Prince  of  Orange,  is  a  name 
that  will  live  in  history  side  by  side  with  that  of  Wash- 
ington and  a  few  other  choice  spirits,  whose  greatness  is 
glorified  by  goodness.  William  was  born  of  Lutheran 
parents,  but  reared  a  Catholic  in  the  court  of  Charles  V. 
He  was  a  great  favorite  with  the  emperor,  who  kept  him 


THE  NETHERLANDS  87 

ever  near  him,  and  leaned  on  his  shoulder  to  support  his 
own  crippled  body  during  the  imposing  solemnities  ac- 
companying the  abdication.  Philip  U  continued  to 
honor  the  favorite  of  his  father,  and  employed  him  in  re- 
sponsible positions.  For  one  thing  he  gave  him  as  a 
hostage  to  Henry  H,  of  France,  as  a  pledge  of  good  faith 
in  the  Treaty  of  Ceteau-Cambresis.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  William  earned  the  title  by  which  he  will  ever  be 
known.  Henry  H,  taking  it  for  granted  that  his  hostage 
was  a  good  Catholic  and  in  the  secrets  of  his  master, 
talked  to  him  freely  about  the  plot  which  the  two  kings 
of  France  and  Spain  had  formed  to  massacre  all  their 
Protestant  subjects.  VVilHam  maintained  a  discreet  si- 
lence, not  betraying  by  the  slightest  quiver  of  a  muscle 
of  the  face,  or  twitch  of  the  eye  the  fact  that  Henry  had 
made  a  great  blunder  in  telling  him  a  piece  of  news  that 
filled  his  soul  with  horror,  and  gave  a  new  bent  to  the 
course  of  his  life. 

Beginning  of  the  Great  Struggle.— The  Duke  of 
Alva,  with  his  Council  of  Blood,  had  been  especially 
active  in  bringing  to  justice  the  rich  nobles  who  had 
taken  any  hand  in  presenting  the  petition  of  the  "  Beggars" 
to  the  regent,  or  who  had  failed  to  take  any  hand  in 
suppressing  the  field-preaching  and  preventing  the  image- 
smashing.  As  the  property  of  those  who  were  convicted 
was  confiscated,  the  duke  by  destroying  the  rich  was 
killing  two  birds  with  one  stone,  putting  traitors  out  of 
the  way,  and  putting  money  into  the  king's  coffers. 
While  William  of  Orange  had  behaved  with  the  greatest 
prudence,  he  knew  that  he  was  too  rich  to  be  safe,  and 
so  he  withdrew  into  Germany.  When  it  became  evident 
that  the  crushing  of  heresy,  meant  the  crushing  out  of 
all  liberty,  political  and  religious,  in  the  Netherlands,  he 


88       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

determined  to  stake  all  on  an  effort  to  deliver  his  be- 
loved country  from  such  a  fate.  He  raised  a  considera- 
ble force  in  Germany,  marched  across  the  border  and 
joined  issue  with  the  duke.  This  was  in  the  year  1568, 
and  marks  the  beginning  of  a  struggle  that  lasted  forty 
years,  a  struggle  in  which  both  sides  exhibited  desperate 
courage,  and  in  which  the  people  of  the  Low  Countries, 
on  whose  soil  it  was  waged,  endured  all  the  horrors  that 
war  in  its  most  cruel  form  could  inflict.  The  struggle 
ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  invincible  "  Beggars,"  and 
the  establishment  of  the  Dutch  Republic.  It  was  twice 
forty  years,  however,  before  Spain  confessed  her  defeat 
by  acknowledging  the  independence  of  the  provinces. 

Change  in  the  Regency. — In  this  famous  struggle, 
William  of  Orange  met  successively  the  ablest  generals 
that  Spain  could  send  against  him,  and  they  were  among 
the  ablest  of  that  warlike  age.  After  the  Duke  of  Alva 
had  put  to  death,  according  to  his  own  count,  18,000 
heretics  and  after  he  had  almost  destroyed  trade  and 
commerce  by  a  destructive  system  of  taxation,  and  after 
he  had  heaped  upon  his  head  the  undying  hatred  of  all 
the  people  by  six  years  of  brutal  tyranny,  he  took  his 
permanent  leave  of  the  country,  with  his  task  unaccom- 
plished. He  was  succeeded  by  Requesens,  a  man  of 
equal  military  genius,  but  of  a  much  more  conciliatory 
temper.  This  made  him  more  dangerous  to  the  cause  of 
liberty,  for  the  reason  that  by  a  show  of  kindness  he 
might  beguile  the  distressed  people  into  a  disastrous 
sense  of  security. 

Siege  and  Relief  of  Leyden. — It  was  during  the  re- 
gency of  Requesens  that  the  crowning  incident  of  the  war 
occurred — the  siege  and  relief  of  Leyden.  As  indicating 
the  quality  of  Dutch  heroism,  we  may  be  permitted  to  con- 


THE  NETHERLANDS  89 

dense  from  Motley's  account  the  story  of  this  event.  The 
city  of  Leyden  was  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain,  in  the  midst 
of  orchards  and  gardens.  It  was  invested  in  the  month 
of  May,  1574,  by  an  army  of  8,000  Spanish  troops.  It 
was  poorly  provisioned,  and  by  the  latter  part  of  June, 
the  food  supply  was  running  short.  On  the  30th  of 
July,  when  the  Spanish  general  knew  that  their  condition 
was  becoming  desperate,  he  offered  them  ample  pardon 
if  they  would  open  their  gates  to  him.  They  treated 
the  offer  with  contempt.  Soon  they  were  reduced  to 
the  very  verge  of  starvation,  and  there  seemed  no  pros- 
pect of  deliverance.  William  was  doing  all  that  he  could. 
He  had  cut  the  dikes,  and  turned  the  North  Sea  on  the 
land  as  the  only  means  of  bringing  relief.  As  the  waters 
began  to  pour  in,  the  Spaniards  were  filled  with  alarm. 
It  appeared  as  if  they  were  to  be  besieged  in  their  turn 
by  the  ocean  whose  power  was  even  mightier,  and  more 
merciless,  if  possible,  than  their  own.  The  citizens  of 
Leyden  were  exultant.  The  burgomaster  ordered  bands 
of  music  to  parade  the  streets,  playing  lively  airs.  Salvos 
of  cannon  were  fired ;  and  the  starving  indulged  in  festive 
joy.  But  alas !  the  waters  did  not  rise  high  enough  to 
carry  the  flotilla  of  vessels,  bearing  relief,  to  the  walls  of 
the  city.  It  stranded  five  miles  away ;  and  days  grew 
into  weeks  while  destined  help  lay  in  sight,  but  only  near 
enough  to  tantalize  their  wistful  eyes.  At  length  the 
faint-hearted  were  about  to  yield  to  despair.  They 
gathered  around  the  heroic  burgomaster,  Adrian  Van 
der  Werf,  with  threats  and  reproaches.  He  was  a  strik- 
ing figure,  "  tall,  haggard,  with  dark  visage,  and  a  tran- 
quil but  commanding  eye.  He  waved  his  broad-brimmed, 
felt  hat  for  silence,  and  then  exclaimed  :  '  My  own  fate 
is  indifferent  to  me,  not  so  that  of  the  city  intrusted  to 


90       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

my  care.  I  know  that  we  shall  starve,  unless  soon  re- 
lieved; but  starvation  is  preferable  to  the  dishonored 
death  which  is  the  only  alternative.  Your  menaces  move 
me  not;  my  Hfe  is  at  your  disposal;  here  is  my  sword, 
plunge  it  into  my  breast  and  divide  my  flesh  among  you. 
Take  my  body  to  appease  your  hunger,  but  expect  no 
surrender  so  long  as  I  remain  alive.'  "  These  stout  words 
inspired  fresh  courage  and  were  greeted  with  a  shout  of 
applause.  Already  everything  that  usually  goes  for  the 
food  of  human  beings  had  been  consumed.  "  Cats  and  dogs, 
rats  and  other  vermin  were  esteemed  a  luxury.  Starving 
wretches  swarmed  daily  around  the  shambles,  where  the 
few  remaining  milk  cows,  kept  as  long  as  possible  for  their 
milk,  were  being  killed,  contending  for  any  morsel  that 
might  fall,  and  lapping  eagerly  the  blood  as  it  ran  along 
the  pavement ;  while  the  hides,  chopped  and  boiled  were 
greedily  devoured.  Women  and  children  all  day  long 
were  seen  searching  the  gutters  and  dunghills  for  morsels 
of  food,  which  they  disputed  fiercely  with  the  famishing 
dogs.  The  green  leaves  were  stripped  from  the  trees, 
every  living  herb  was  converted  into  human  food,  but 
these  could  not  avert  starvation.  The  daily  mortality 
Avas  frightful;  infants  starved  to  death  on  the  maternal 
breast,  which  famine  had  parched  and  withered ;  mothers 
dropped  dead  in  the  streets,  with  their  dead  children  in 
their  arms."  It  is  certainly  not  remarkable  that  people  in 
such  a  case  should  have  pleaded  with  the  commandant  to 
surrender.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  after  his  brave 
words  they  could  hurl  defiance  again  in  the  face  of  their 
taunting  foes,  crying  to  them  from  the  top  of  their  ram- 
parts :  "  You  call  us  rat-eaters,  and  dog-eaters,  and  it  is 
true.  So  long  then  as  you  hear  a  dog  bark,  or  a  cat 
mew  within  the  walls,  you  may  know  that  the  city  holds 


THE  NETHERLANDS  91 

out.  And  when  all  has  perished  but  ourselves,  be  sure 
that  we  will  each  devour  our  left  arms,  retaining  our  right 
arms  to  defend  our  women,  our  liberty  and  our  religion 
against  the  foreign  tyrant.  Should  God  in  his  wrath 
doom  us  to  destruction,  and  deny  us  all  relief,  even  then 
will  we  maintain  ourselves  forever  against  your  entrance. 
When  the  last  hour  has  come,  with  our  own  hands  we  will 
set  fire  to  the  city  and  perish,  men,  women  and  children  to- 
gether in  the  flames,  rather  than  suffer  our  homes  to  be 
polluted,  and  our  liberties  to  be  crushed."  It  is  a  com- 
fort to  know  that  God  did  not  in  his  wrath  doom  them 
to  destruction,  but  suddenly  turning  a  strong  north  wind 
on  the  waters  of  the  ocean,  he  lifted  them  into  huge  bil- 
lows, and  sent  them  tumbling  over  the  ruined  dikes,  and 
sweeping  up  around  the  stranded  vessels.  These  were 
soon  raised  from  the  mud,  and  borne  onward  to  the  city, 
into  the  gates  of  which  they  entered  on  the  3d  day  of 
October.  The  emaciated  remnants  of  the  population 
were  waiting  their  advent.  They  recognized  the  good 
hand  of  God  in  their  deliverance,  and  went  in  a  body  to 
the  cathedral.  There  they  poured  out  thanksgiving  to 
God,  at  first  in  song,  but  soon  their  feeble  voices  failed, 
and  they  finished  the  service  with  a  tribute  of  grateful 
tears. 

This  was  the  turning  point  in  the  great  conflict.  Spain 
had  learned  by  this  time  that  the  task  of  exterminating 
heresy  meant  nothing  less  than  the  extermination  of  the 
great  majority  of  the  people ;  and  while  the  king's  piety 
was  earnest  enough  to  carry  matters  to  that  extent,  his 
material  resources  were  hardly  adequate. 

The  Spanish  Fury.— Shortly  after  this  crowning  event 
of  the  struggle,  Requesens  died,  and  the  Spanish  troops, 
grown  sullen  and  discontented  because  of  the  long  arrear- 


92       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

age  in  their  pay,  mutinied,  trampled  all  restraint  under 
foot,  and  gave  loose  rein  to  passions  more  fiendish  than 
human.  The  city  of  Antwerp  which  had  witnessed  a 
Calvinistic  mob  wreak  its  malice  on  pictures  and  images, 
was  now  to  witness  a  Catholic  army,  transformed  into  a 
mob,  make  a  display  of  itself.  The  soldiers  showed  no 
respect  for  anything  sacred,  nor  any  regard  for  anything 
living.  They  entered  houses,  laid  their  hands  on  what- 
ever was  valuable,  slaughtered  the  inmates,  sometimes 
meting  out  worse  than  death  to  helpless  women.  Stores 
were  looted,  churches  demolished,  and  the  streets  were 
running  red  with  the  blood  of  those  slain  in  the  very 
wantonness  of  brutality.  More  lives  were  destroyed  in 
Antwerp  by  the  "  Spanish  Fury,"  as  it  was  called,  than 
were  destroyed  in  Paris  on  St.  Bartholomew's  fatal  day. 
Where  Calvinists  destroyed  the  worthless  images,  these 
soldiers,  trained  in  the  faith  of  the  papacy,  fairly  reveled 
in  the  butchery  of  human  beings. 

The  Pacification  of  Ghent. — The  effect  of  the  Spanish 
Fury  was  favorable  to  the  Protestant  cause.  Previous  to 
this  time  the  two  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand  had 
declared  their  independence  and  united  on  William  of 
Orange  for  their  stadtholder;  but  there  had  been  no 
unity  of  effort  among  the  other  provinces.  Now  the 
other  fifteen,  alienated  from  Spain  by  the  savage  out- 
rages of  her  uncontrolled  soldiers,  were  ready  to  make 
common  cause  with  the  two.  Conference  led  to  the 
Pacification  of  Ghent.  This  was  an  agreement  to  stand 
together  in  an  effort  to  drive  the  Spaniards  from  the 
Netherlands.  Protestant  and  Catholic  were  at  length 
united  in  a  well-considered  resolve  to  be  rid  of  foreign 
tyranny,  and  military  oppression. 

Founding:  of  the  Dutch  Republic. — Philip  sent  Don 


THE  NETHERLANDS  93 

John  of  Austria,  his  half  brother,  to  fill  the  regency, 
made  vacant  by  the  death  of  Requesens.  He  was  a  re- 
nowned soldier,  having  distinguished  himself  very  greatly 
in  a  war  with  the  Moors.  More  recently  he  had  added 
to  his  fame  by  a  victory  over  the  Turks  in  a  naval  battle 
in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto.  This  was  the  first  serious  check 
which  the  Turks  had  received  in  their  aggressive  warfare 
on  Central  Europe.  The  Pope  had  tried  in  vain  to  stir 
the  old  crusading  spirit,  and  to  hurl  against  the  Cresent 
the  combined  powers  of  Western  Christendom.  In  this 
he  had  failed,  and  in  consequence  was  trembling  for  the 
fate  of  his  throne.  This  naval  battle,  in  which  Don  John 
was  leading  the  Christian  forces  would  decide  it.  He 
listened  with  bated  breath  for  news  from  Lepanto. 
When  a  messenger  came,  and  announced  the  result,  the 
Pope  embraced  the  messenger,  exclaiming,  "  There  was  a 
man  sent  from  God  whose  name  was  John."  This  was 
the  man  whom  PhiHp  sent  to  the  Netherlands,  but  it  may 
be  doubted  whether  the  Protestants  regarded  him  as  •'  a 
man  sent  from  God."  Under  his  vigorous  leadership, 
the  war  went  on  with  its  treacheries,  its  massacres,  its 
sieges  and  its  famines.  After  winning  many  victories 
and  proving  himself  a  worthy  successor  of  the  bloody 
Alva,  Don  John  died  in  a  mood  of  deep  despondency, 
not  on  account  of  his  sins,  but  because  he  had  lost  the 
confidence  and  support  of  the  home  government,  and 
was  thwarted  in  his  congenial  task  of  destruction.  He 
was  followed  by  his  nephew,  the  Duke  of  Parma,  who 
surpassed  all  of  his  predecessors  in  military  genius,  and 
who  was  also  an  adept  in  the  art  of  diplomacy.  Un- 
fortunately the  feeling  of  resentment,  the  sense  of  outrage, 
awakened  by  the  Spanish  Fury,  had  begun  to  abate,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  provinces  were  willing  to 


94       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

listen  to  the  voice  of  the  charmer.  They  were  of  a  dif- 
ferent race  from  their  northern  neighbors.  Their  lan- 
guage was  French,  and  they  were  essentially  a  Celtic 
people,  having  the  Celtic  characteristics,  warm-blooded, 
impulsive  and  mercurial.  The  inhabitants  of  the  north- 
ern provinces  were  of  the  sturdy  Teutonic  stock,  noted 
since  the  days  of  Julius  Caesar  for  its  spirit  of  independ- 
ence, and  its  heroic  fortitude.  The  Duke  of  Parma,  by 
his  specious  speeches,  and  conciliatory  bearing,  succeeded 
in  severing  these  two  dissimilar  elements,  and  in  bring- 
ing the  ten  provinces  which  now  constitute  the  kingdom 
of  Belgium  permanently  under  the  power  of  the  papacy. 
The  other  seven  provinces  continued  to  hang  together, 
and  to  wage  a  desperate  warfare  with  the  tremendous 
odds  which  Spain  marshaled  against  them.  They 
suffered  many  defeats,  and  won  few  victories,  but  by 
patient  endurance  and  dogged  perseverance  they  finally 
wore  out  their  relentless  adversary.  In  the  Treaty  of 
Utrecht,  1579,  their  independence  was  practically  con- 
ceded, and  the  foundations  of  the  Dutch  Republic  were 
laid  deep  and  lasting. 

Fortunes  of  the  Church. — The  foregoing  account  has 
seemed  necessary  in  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  con- 
dition of  turmoil  and  bloodshed  in  which  the  Reformed 
Church  of  the  Netherlands  was  born,  and  in  which  the 
years  of  its  infancy  were  passed.  As  already  noticed 
two  types  of  evangelical  doctrine  flowed  into  the  country 
from  opposite  directions.  While  Lutheranism  was  first 
on  the  ground,  Calvinism  first  took  definite  shape  and 
soon  supplanted  its  rival.  To  Guy  de  Bres,  a  Walloon 
preacher,  belongs  the  honor  of  preparing  for  the  scattered 
congregations  a  Confession  of  Faith.  He  had  been 
taught  by  Calvin,  and  as  the  faith  which  he  formulated 


THE  NETHERLANDS  95 

had  been  received  from  France  it  was  natural  that  this 
Confession  should  be  modeled  closely  after  that  of  the 
French  Church.  It  was  prepared  as  early  as  1561,  only 
two  years  after  the  Gallic  Confession  had  been  adopted 
by  the  first  synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  France. 
The  convention  of  Antwerp,  secretly  held  in  1566,  ap- 
proved both  the  Confession  of  Guy  de  Bres,  and  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism. 

External  Synods.— It  was  the  next  year  after  the  Ant- 
werp convention  that  the  Duke  of  Alva  descended  on  the 
Netherlands  and  began  his  furious  persecution.  Many  of 
the  Protestant  leaders  fled  across  the  border,  and  took 
refuge  in  the  city  of  Wesel.  Here  a  synod  was  held  in 
1568.  This  synod  in  addition  to  ratifying  the  two 
symbols  above  mentioned  proceeded  to  erect  a  super- 
structure of  Church  government.  They  made  provision 
for  four  officers,  and  defined  their  duties ;  these  were 
pastors,  teachers,  ruling  elders  and  deacons.  Another 
synod  met  at  Emden,  which  confirmed  the  action  of  that 
at  Wesel,  and  made  certain  additions.  It  required  that 
ministers  should  subscribe  the  standards  of  doctrine,  gave 
the  name  consistory  to  the  congregational  court,  formed 
by  pastor,  elders  and  deacons,  and  provided  for  classes 
which  should  meet  quarterly,  or  semiannually.  Thus 
these  exiles  constructed  the  whole  machinery  of  the 
Church,  and  only  awaited  favorable  conditions  to  return 
home  and  put  it  in  operation.  Such  conditions  prevailed 
in  the  provinces  of  Holland  and  Zealand  as  early  as 
1572,  the  year  in  which  these  provinces  declared  their 
independence. 

Synods  in  the  Home  Land.— The  first  synod  to  as- 
semble on  native  soil  met  in  the  city  of  Dort  in  I574- 
It  organized  the  churches  of  the  two  independent  prov- 


96       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

inces  into  fourteen  classes,  and  enjoined  upon  them  the 
articles  adopted  at  Emden. 

The  first  National  Synod  was  held  in  the  same  city  of 
Dort  in  1578.  It  completed  the  polity  of  the  Church  by 
defining  four  courts  of  the  Church,  consistories,  classes, 
provincial  and  national  synods,  the  last  to  meet  tri- 
ennially. 

Relation  of  Church  and  State. — The  first  National 
Synod  was  called  without  the  consent  of  the  civil  power, 
and  it  declared  that  the  Church  had  a  right  to  manage 
its  own  affairs.  The  Church  did  not  mean  to  separate 
entirely  from  the  state.  Its  theory  was  that  Church  and 
state  should  be  copartners,  each  independent  in  its  own 
sphere,  but  both  cooperating  in  forwarding  the  same 
interests.  The  Church  should  lend  its  counsels  and  in- 
fluence to  the  state;  and  the  state  should  give  to  the 
Church  the  benefit  of  its  strong  arm  of  power  in  regu- 
lating faith  and  morals.  Like  the  Protestant  Church  of 
P>ance,  the  Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands  put 
into  its  Confession  of  Faith  its  belief  that  it  was  the  office 
of  the  civil  magistrate  "  to  remove  and  prevent  all  idolatry 
and  false  worship,  that  the  kingdom  of  Antichrist  may 
thus  be  destroyed,  and  the  kingdom  of  Christ  promoted." 
In  other  words  it  was  the  doctrine  of  the  Reformers,  as 
it  was  the  doctrine  of  the  papacy,  that  heresy  should  be 
suppressed  by  the  sword.  They  differed  only  as  to  what 
constituted  heresy.  Very  naturally  those  who  were  not 
ardent  Calvinists  were  in  no  haste  to  put  power  in  their 
hands.  They  feared  that  in  so  doing  they  would  sacri- 
fice the  religious  freedom  which  they  had  purchased  at 
such  a  dear  price.  William  of  Orange  wished  freedom 
of  worship  for  Catholics,  and  even  for  the  Anabaptists. 
From  the  very  beginning  of  the  struggle  to  cast  off 


THE  NETHERLANDS  97 

Spanish  tyranny  he  had  expressed  the  conviction  that 
faith  could  not  be  controlled  by  violence.  He  was  there- 
fore utterly  averse  to  clothing  the  Church  with  power 
that  would  enable  it  to  persecute.  He  wished  the  state 
to  have  the  appointment  of  ministers  and  the  general  ad- 
ministration of  Church  affairs.  He  was  not  alone  in  his 
views.  The  magistrates  of  Leyden  said :  "  If  we  accept 
everything  resolved  on  by  the  synods,  we  shall  in  the 
end  become  their  vassals.  We  will  not  open  to  the 
churchmen  our  gates  and  our  doors  for  a  new  mastership 
over  magistrates  and  subjects,  wife  and  child."  No  doubt 
the  influence  of  Luther  and  Zwingli  had  much  to 
do  in  producing  this  demand  of  the  state  for  rulership 
over  the  Church.  The  outcome  was  the  disappointment 
of  the  hopes  of  the  Reformers  to  have  a  national  Church 
possessing  complete  autonomy.  They  had  to  consent  to 
a  separate  church  for  each  province,  the  highest  court 
being  the  Provincial  Synod.  Of  course,  the  churches  of 
all  the  provinces  were  bound  together  by  a  close  bond 
of  sympathy  inasmuch  as  they  all  had  the  same  polity, 
the  same  creed  and  constitution.  But  over  all,  the  civil 
power  exercised  a  supervisory  control. 

Devotion  to  Learning. — Nothing  was  more  character- 
istic of  the  youthful  Church  in  the  Netherlands  than  its 
love  for  learning.  Recognizing  that  they  owed  to  the 
light  of  knowledge  their  escape  from  the  errors  of 
Romanism,  they  were  intent  on  giving  this  light  to  the 
whole  land.  Knowing  that  Protestantism  was  due  to  a 
revival  of  the  pure  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  and  that  its 
life  depended  upon  a  true  theology,  they  lost  no  time 
and  spared  no  pains  in  providing  for  permanent  and 
thorough  instruction.  The  spirit  of  the  people  may  be 
judged   by  the   choice   made  by  Leyden.     The  service 


98       HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

which  her  heroic  people  had  rendered  to  the  cause  of 
hberty  by  sustaining  the  siege  in  1574  until  deliverance 
could  be  brought  merited  the  warmest  recognition. 
William  the  Silent  was  prompt  to  acknowledge  this  and 
to  offer  a  fitting  reward.  He  gave  the  city  the  choice  of 
exemption  from  certain  taxes,  and  other  pecuniary  favors, 
or  the  establishment  of  a  university  in  her  midst.  The 
people,  so  recently  stripped  of  their  property,  and  re- 
duced to  the  verge  of  starvation,  at  once  made  choice 
of  the  university.  Certain  funds  and  buildings  were  set 
apart  for  the  purpose  by  the  prince,  and  the  University 
of  Leyden  was  duly  inaugurated  only  four  months  after 
the  siege  was  raised.  Eleven  years  afterwards,  and  while 
the  terrible  war  was  still  in  progress  the  University  of 
Franeker  was  founded.  By  the  middle  of  the  next  cen- 
tury three  other  great  institutions  of  learning  were  estab- 
lished, and  the  Dutch  Republic  became  the  schoolmaster 
of  Reformed  Christendom.  While  all  branches  of  learn- 
ing made  up  the  curricula  of  these  schools,  they  gave 
special  prominence  to  theology,  and  from  that  day  till 
this  Holland  has  been  famous  for  her  theologians.  These 
have  not  always  followed  the  "  old  paths,"  but  from  time 
to  time,  they  have  made  serious  departures  and  precipi- 
tated fierce  and  protracted  controversies. 

Arminianism. — The  first  of  the  great  theological  battles 
was  over  views  propounded  by  Arminius.  He  began  his 
public  ministry  as  pastor  of  the  church  of  Amsterdam. 
He  gained  reputation  for  learning  and  eloquence.  It  was 
Vv^hile  pastor  of  this  church,  and  in  an  endeavor  to  meet 
certain  difficulties  raised  by  his  parishioners  touching  the 
doctrine  of  election  that  he  gave  proof  of  having  departed 
from  the  doctrinal  standards  of  the  Reformed  Church. 
This  created  considerable  disturbance,  but  after  a  time 


THE  NETHERLANDS  99 

the  trouble  was  adjusted  and  the  excitement  died  down. 
He  was  transferred  from  the  pastorate  to  the  professor- 
ship of  theology  in  the  University  of  Leyden.  It  soon 
developed  that  he  was  teaching  objectionable  views. 
Gomarus,  a  colleague  of  his  in  the  faculty  of  the  uni- 
versity, and  who  belonged  to  the  "  most  straitest  sect"  of 
the  Calvinists,  took  up  arms  against  him.  The  conflict 
spread  until  the  whole  country  was  excited  over  it,  and 
divided  into  hostile  parties.  While  the  strife  was  still 
raging,  and  even  growing  more  bitter,  Arminius  died  in 
1609.  By  this  time  his  views  had  won  quite  a  strong 
body  of  adherents.  They  presented  their  views  to  the 
States-general  in  a  paper  called  a  remonstrance,  and  from 
this  circumstance  they  came  to  be  called  Remonstrants. 

Synod  of  Dort. — When  there  seemed  no  other  way  of 
settling  the  vexing  questions,  a  synod  was  called  to  meet 
in  the  city  of  Dort  on  November  13th,  161 8.  Reformed 
churches  of  other  countries  were  invited  to  send  delegates. 
Several  accepted  the  invitation,  and  there  were  delegates 
present  from  England,  Germany,  Switzerland  and  the 
Southern  Netherlands.  This  was  the  recognition  of  a 
common  faith,  and  the  profession  of  essential  unity  among 
all  these  churches.  While  we  may  regret  the  rise  of 
Arminianism,  we  can  at  the  same  time  rejoice  that  there 
was  assembled  one  truly  oecumenical  council  in  Protestant 
Christendom  during  the  Reformation  period.  The  synod 
agreed  to  make  the  word  of  God  the  sole  standard  of 
judgment  and  to  subject  the  matters  in  dispute  to  that 
test.  The  result  was  the  condemnation  of  the  five  dis- 
tinctive doctrines  of  the  Arminians,  and  the  affirmation 
in  their  stead  of  what  have  since  been  known  as  the 
"  five  points  of  Calvinism."  The  synod  continued  in 
session  for  several  months,  and  its  decrees  were  adopted 


loo     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

by  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland  as  a  part  of  its 
standards,  and  they  so  continue  to  this  day.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  know  that  the  hall  in  which  this  famous  synod 
met  is  now  used  as  a  prison  for  female  offenders. 

The  Netherlands  a  Place  of  Refuge.— While  the 
doctrine  of  religious  liberty  was  not  clearly  apprehended 
by  the  Dutch,  the  government  of  that  brave  little  republic 
was  far  more  liberal  than  that  of  any  of  its  neighbors. 
Hence  it  became  a  place  of  blessed  retreat  for  the  poor 
Huguenots  of  France,  the  Puritans  of  England,  and  the 
Covenanters  of  Scotland.  These  refugees  were  permitted 
to  organize  themselves  into  churches  and  provide  in  their 
own  way  for  their  own  religious  needs.  In  some  in- 
stances church  edifices  were  freely  put  at  their  use. 
Then  the  great  universities  were  at  hand,  offering  their 
unparalleled  advantages  to  those  who  could  avail  them- 
selves of  them.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  exaggerate  the 
debt  which  the  persecuted  saints  of  other  lands  owed  to 
freedom-loving  and  freedom-giving  Holland.  Perhaps 
not  the  least  part  of  this  debt  was  due  to  theological  con- 
tributions which  the  Reformed  Church  of  the  Netherlands 
made  to  sister  churches  beyond  her  borders.  It  is  hardly 
true  to  the  history  of  doctrine,  however,  to  attribute,  as 
is  too  often  done,  the  origin  and  development  of  the 
federal  theology  altogether  to  the  able  scholars  of  that 
land.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  Cocceius  gave  it  a  more 
complete  elaboration  than  it  had  before  received,  and 
owing  to  the  very  influential  relation  of  Holland  to  the 
churches  of  England  and  Scotland,  the  creedal  statemente 
of  these  churches  were  more  or  less  colored  by  the  Dutch 
theology. 

The  Church  of  the  Netherlands  in  More  Recent 
Times. — An  eminent  authority  says  that  the  effect  of  the 


THE  NETHERLANDS  loi 

Synod  of  Dort  was  to  draw  more  closely  the  bond  be- 
tween Church  and  state.  The  synod  was  called  by  the 
state ;  its  meetings  were  supervised  by  delegates  from  the 
state ;  it  asked  and  obtained  the  approval  of  the  state  for 
all  its  proceedings ;  and  expected  the  state  to  enforce  its 
decisions  against  the  Remonstrants.  From  this  time 
forth  the  Church  was  in  bondage  to  the  state.  It  derived 
its  support  from  the  public  purse,  and  took  its  law  largely 
from  the  secular  power.  While  it  gave  birth  to  many 
great  and  noble  spirits,  did  much  to  promote  sound  learn- 
ing, and  for  a  time  exhibited  a  fair  measure  of  zeal  in  the 
maintenance  and  promotion  of  a  high  type  of  piety,  yet 
the  freshness  and  buoyancy  of  its  young  life  felt  the  dead- 
ening effect  of  this  unhappy  union. 

This  condition  continued  until  the  French  Revolution, 
when  the  Dutch  Republic  became  a  part  of  the  Empire 
of  France.  The  bond  between  Church  and  state  was 
severed,  and  for  a  few  years  the  Church  was  thrown  on 
her  own  resources,  and  permitted  to  go  her  own  way. 
On  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  Netherlands  were  trans- 
formed into  a  kingdom,  with  William  I.  on  the  throne. 
He  laid  a  strong  hand  on  the  Church,  throwing  rigid 
restrictions  around  the  administration  of  its  courts,  and 
decreeing  that  none  of  their  resolutions  should  be  promul- 
gated without  his  approval. 

Rise  of  Rationalism. — It  was  only  a  few  years  before 
rationalism  began  to  creep  into  pulpits  and  seminaries. 
Those  who  subscribed  the  standards  took  the  ground  that 
they  were  bound  by  them  only  in  so  far  as  they  were  in 
accord  with  the  word  of  God,  and  the  subscribers,  of 
course,  were  to  be  the  judges.  Earnest  protest  was  made, 
but  the  synod,  which  was  the  creature  of  the  king,  sus- 
tained the  position  of  those  who  claimed  liberty.     The 


I02     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

men  of  evangelical  views  who  still  adhered  to  the  stand- 
ards in  their  integrity  were  greatly  grieved,  but  discipline 
was  not  possible.  Some  took  the  only  course  that  would 
satisfy  conscience, — they  separated  themselves  from  the 
Church,  whose  testimony  had  ceased  to  ring  clear  for  the 
truth.  The  first  to  break  away  was  Henry  de  Cock  in 
1834.  He  was  soon  followed  by  a  few  others,  eminent 
for  piety  and  learning. 

Formation  of  the  Christian  Reformed  Church. — 
In  1837,  those  who  had  separated  themselves  from  the 
National  Church  met  together  and  organized  a  Church 
independent  of  state  control  and  of  state  support,  and 
gave  it  the  name  of  the  Christian  Reformed.  The  king, 
who  had  shown  such  a  disposition  to  govern  with  a  high 
hand  expressed  his  disapproval  of  this  movement  in  a 
very  vigorous  way  by  inflicting  fines  and  imprisonments 
on  the  separatists.  In  consequence  of  these  persecutions 
a  large  number  from  the  Christian  Reformed  Church  left 
the  Fatherland  in  1847  and  came  to  America.  It  is  sad 
to  have  to  record  that  after  nearly  the  whole  of  Protestant 
Christendom  had  come  to  look  upon  persecution  for 
opinion's  sake  as  a  characteristic  of  a  barbarous  age,  the 
practice  was  revived  near  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  and  among  a  people  who  had  at  an  earlier 
period  won  an  enviable  name  for  their  spirit  of  tolerance. 
But,  as  is  usually  the  case,  the  persecuted  Church  flourished, 
and  soon  attained  a  position  of  great  power. 

The  sovereigns  who  succeeded  William  I.  were  far  more 
liberal,  and  since  his  day  there  has  been  no  further  state 
interference.  Still  the  government  of  the  National 
Church  developed  from  bad  to  worse.  Rationalism  in- 
creased, the  synod  in  1853  declaring  that  its  ministers 
would  be  required  to   agree  only  with  "  the  spirit  and 


THE  NETHERLANDS  103 

essence "  of  the  standards.  A  second  secession  took 
place  in  1886  under  the  leadership  of  the  distinguished 
Dr.  Kuyper.  It  has  since  united  with  the  Christian  Re- 
formed Church.  Before  this  union  two  theological  semi- 
naries had  been  founded,  to  secure  a  succession  of  edu- 
cated and  orthodox  ministers, — one  at  Kampen  and  the 
other  at  Amsterdam.  An  effort  is  being  made  at  present 
to  consolidate  these  two,  the  outcome  of  which  will  be 
watched  with  interest. 


CHAPTER  V 
AUSTRIA 

I.     Bohemia  and  Moravia 

First  Reformers. — Huss  and  Jerome,  names  spoken 
with  reverence  by  all  evangelical  churches,  were  burnt  by 
the  Council  of  Constance  in  the  years  141 5  and  1416. 
Their  offense  was  an  effort  to  put  the  word  of  God  in  its 
proper  position  of  supreme  authority,  and  to  bring  the 
clergy  of  Rome  back  to  the  discharge  of  the  duties 
which  by  divine  appointment  belonged  to  their  office, 
and  to  reform  their  lives  in  harmony  with  the  purity  and 
simplicity  of  apostolic  times.  Their  martyrdom  awak- 
ened profound  indignation  throughout  Bohemia.  Thou- 
sands had  opened  their  minds  and  hearts  to  the  teaching 
of  those  bold  assailants  of  a  corrupt  priesthood,  and  the 
fires  kindled  at  Constance,  instead  of  terrifying  them  into 
silence,  stirred  them  to  open  and  vehement  protest.  An 
attempt  to  put  down  the  disaffection  by  force,  caused  the 
Hussites  to  organize  for  defense. 

Calixtines  and  Taborites. — Unfortunately,  they  split 
into  two  hostile  factions.  The  one  party  was  known  by 
the  name  of  Calixtines,  because  they  insisted  that  the 
cup,  as  well  as  the  bread,  should  be  given  to  the  laity  in 
the  distribution  of  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
For  a  long  while  the  Church  of  Rome  had  refused  the 
cup  to  the  people  out  of  reverence  for  the  wine,  lest  it 
should  be  spilled  in  passing  from  one  to  another. 
Thomas  Aquinas  justified  this  custom  by  his  doctrine  of 

104 


AUSTRIA  105 

"  concomitance,"  the  doctrine  that  Christ  is  whole  and 
entire  in  each  of  the  elements,  and  therefore,  both  his 
body  and  his  blood  are  received  by  those  who  receive  the 
bread  alone. 

The  other  party  was  more  radical,  and  came  to  be 
known  by  the  name  of  Taborites  from  the  hill  on  which 
they  strongly  fortified  themselves  and  bade  successful  de- 
fiance to  their  enemies.  These  went  beyond  Huss  in 
denouncing  the  various  abuses  and  errors  of  the  Romish 
Church.  "  Their  creed  which  took  on  new  phases  from 
time  to  time,  embraced  the  leading  points  of  what,  a 
century  later,  was  included  in  Protestantism." 

Though  the  relation  of  these  two  parties  was  not 
friendly,  they  were  able  to  lay  aside  their  mutual  ani- 
mosities and  stand  together  against  the  efforts  of  Rome 
to  crush  them  both.  Under  the  leadership  of  the  brave 
Ziska,  they  performed  unsurpassed  prodigies  of  valor. 
They  beat  back,  time  after  time,  the  strongest  armies  of 
veteran  troops  that  the  German  emperor  could  send 
against  them.  At  length,  quitting  the  defensive,  they 
"  carried  the  war  into  Africa,"  and  their  devastating  in- 
vasions of  the  neighboring  German  states  soon  made  the 
emperor  think  of  some  method  of  conciHation. 

The  Council  of  Basel.— The  Pope  was  equally  con- 
cerned, for  he  and  the  emperor  were  making  common 
cause,  which  in  this  case  meant  common  failure.  They 
put  their  heads  together  and  concluded  to  call  a  general 
council  of  the  Church,  and  invite  the  invincible  Hussites 
to  come  and  confer  in  reference  to  some  ground  of  agree- 
ment. The  council  met  at  Basel  in  1430.  Having 
obtained  full  guarantees  for  their  personal  safety  and 
abundant  pledges  that  they  should  have  a  fair  hearing, 
representatives  from  both  parties  attended  the  council. 


io6     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Their  reception  and  treatment  were  in  marked  contrast 
to  the  burning  of  their  great  spiritual  guides  only  fifteen 
years  before.  This  time  there  was  no  disgraceful  perjury 
on  the  part  of  the  emperor  by  violating  a  safe-conduct, 
and  no  advice  to  such  a  course  on  the  part  of  the  Pope, 
who  claimed  the  right  to  absolve  one  from  the  obliga- 
tions of  his  oath.  There  was  nothing  like  the  power  of 
self-defense  to  make  an  emperor  and  a  Pope  behave  like 
Christian  men.  Important  concessions  were  made  to  the 
Bohemians,  and  they  departed,  victors  in  the  contest.  It 
was  not  long,  however,  till  the  two  factions,  free  from 
outside  danger,  went  to  war  against  each  other,  and  the 
brave  Taborites,  outnumbered  by  their  equally  brave  ad- 
versaries, were  practically  exterminated. 

The  Brethren  of  the  Unity. — After  the  destruction  of 
the  Taborites,  the  CaHxtines  gradually  lost  their  spiritual 
ardor,  and  many  of  them  melted  back  into  the  Catholic 
Church.  In  fact  they  had  never  been  formally  separated 
from  it,  and  gradually  they  became  enveloped  again  in 
the  prevailing  spiritual  darkness.  But  God  had  his 
chosen  remnant.  He  did  not  suffer  the  seed  sown  in  the 
tears  and  nourished  by  the  blood  of  his  children  to  fail  of 
its  blessed  fruitage.  About  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century  there  arose  another  party,  inheriting  the  evan- 
gelical ideas  of  the  past,  and  manifesting  a  disposition  in 
harmony  with  them.  They  were  the  Taborites  in  doc- 
trine, but  with  peaceful  and  gentle  spirits.  They  sep- 
arated entirely  from  the  Church  and  took  the  name  of 
Unitas  Fratrorum,  known  in  after  history  as  the  Bo- 
hemian Brethren.  Many  nobles  joined  them  and  by  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  they  had  gathered  a 
good  degree  of  strength,  numbering  400  parishes  and 
200,000  members.     Their  organization  was  substantially 


AUSTRIA  107 

Presbyterian,  but  their  doctrinal  views,  while  evangelical, 
were  not  formulated  into  a  logical  system. 

Luther  had  not  long  been  assailing  the  errors  of  Ro- 
manism till  his  teachings  reached  Bohemia.  They  were 
carried  thither  in  his  writings  and  also  in  the  minds  and 
hearts  of  Bohemian  students  who  attended  the  Wittenberg 
University.  Moreover,  the  Bohemian  Brethren  sent 
several  deputations  to  consult  Luther,  one  of  which  in 
1536  carried  their  Confession  of  Faith  for  Luther  to  ex- 
amine. He  disapproved  of  some  of  its  views,  but  after 
slight  modifications,  he  published  it  at  their  expense,  and 
sent  it  forth  with  a  favorable  preface,  written  by  his  own 
hand. 

When  war  broke  out  in  Germany  between  the  emperor 
and  the  Protestants,  banded  together  in  the  Smalcald 
League,  Ferdinand,  king  of  Bohemia  wished  all  of  his 
subjects  to  side  with  the  emperor.  This  was  very 
natural,  inasmuch  as  he  was  the  emperor's  brother,  and 
was  also  an  intense  Catholic.  Very  naturally,  the  Bo- 
hemian Protestants  did  not  wish  to  fight  against  their 
Protestant  brethren  in  Germany.  They  had  a  very 
stubborn  way  of  not  doing  what  they  did  not  wish  to  do, 
and  the  result  was  a  refusal  on  their  part  to  help  their 
king  in  the  war,  and  when  the  war  terminated  in  victory 
for  the  emperor,  Ferdinand  took  vengeance  on  his  dis- 
obedient subjects  by  persecuting  them  severely  and  ban- 
ishing many  of  them  from  his  country.  But  those  left 
behind  continued  to  grow  in  numbers.  Their  next  king 
did  them  little  harm,  and  they  enjoyed  several  years  of 
peaceful  prosperity. 

Change  of  Views.— In  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  their  intercourse  with  Swiss  reformers  led  the 
non-German   population    of   Bohemia   to    change   from 


io8     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Luther  to  Calvin.  The  Church  put  forth  a  great  many 
confessions,  but  in  1 781,  all  these  gave  place  to  the  second 
Helvetic,  which,  along  with  the  Heidelberg  Catechism, 
continues  to  be  their  official  standard  of  doctrine. 

Such  was  the  growth  of  Protestantism  in  Bohemia  that 
by  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  Prot- 
estants included  four  fifths  of  the  entire  population,  some 
writers  put  their  number  at  nine  tenths.  They  had  suf- 
ficient strength  in  1608  to  constrain  the  emperor,  Ru- 
dolph H,  to  grant  them  full  religious  and  political  rights, 
securing  for  themselves  a  separate  consistory  at  Prague, 
and  the  control  of  the  university.  This  marked  the 
culmination  of  their  temporal  prosperity,  and  it  was  not 
long  till  disasters  unspeakable  overtook  them. 

The  Persecution  Under  Ferdinand  II. — In  the  year 
1 61 7,  Ferdinand  of  Styria  secured  possession  of  the 
crown  of  Bohemia.  He  was  a  zealous  Catholic,  edu- 
cated by  the  Jesuits  and  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  religious  intolerance.  He  only  wanted  an  op- 
portunity to  demonstrate  his  piety  by  crushing  out  all 
opposition  to  the  Catholic  faith.  This  opportunity  was 
not  long  in  coming  to  him.  His  Protestant  subjects 
were  in  no  mood  to  submit  to  any  encroachments  on 
their  rights,  and  considering  themselves  aggrieved,  they 
pitched  two  government  officials  out  of  a  high  window. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  rebellion  and  both  sides 
marshaled  their  forces.  In  161 9,  Ferdinand  was  elected 
emperor,  and  in  that  very  same  week  the  Bohemians  re- 
nounced their  allegiance  to  him  and  offered  the  crown  of 
Bohemia  to  Frederick  V,  elector  of  the  Palatinate.  He 
was  an  evangelical  Protestant,  warmly  attached  to  the 
Reformed  faith  as  set  forth  in  the  Heidelberg  Catechism. 
He  was  son-in-law  of  James  I  of  England,  having  mar- 


AUSTRIA 


109 


ried  Elizabeth,  the  only  daughter  of  that  king.  Fred- 
crick  accepted  the  crown  that  was  offered  to  him, 
counting  no  doubt  on  large  assistance  from  Protestant 
Christendom  in  his  efforts  to  make  its  possession  perma- 
nent and  secure.  It  did  seem  a  great  opportunity  for  the 
enemies  of  Rome.  But  unfortunately  the  Protestants  of 
North  Germany  had  been  taught  by  Luther  to  hate  the 
Calvinists  more  bitterly  than  they  hated  the  papists  ;  and 
James  I  had  his  hands  full  in  the  pious  task  of  trying  to 
make  truculent  Episcopalians  out  of  the  free-spirited 
Presbyterians  of  Scotland  and  to  marry  his  son  to  the 
Spanish  Infanta.  Could  the  Lutherans  of  Saxony  have 
laid  aside  their  irrational  prejudice  against  the  "  Sacra- 
mentarians,"  or  could  James  I  have  been  transformed 
into  a  Cromwell,  Bohemia  would  have  won  her  inde- 
pendence, the  Catholic  reaction  in  Austria  would  have 
been  checked,  and  both  Bohemia  and  Austria  would 
have  taken  their  place  in  the  ranks  of  Protestant  nations. 
Moreover  Spain's  ambition  would  have  been  curbed,  and 
France  would  not  have  been  permitted,  under  the  saga- 
cious leadership  of  Richeheu,  to  take  advantage  of  the 
quarrels  of  her  neighbors  to  mount  to  a  dominant  posi- 
tion in  the  affairs  of  Europe.  But  the  great  opportunity 
was  lost.  Frederick  was  left  almost  alone  to  battle  for 
his  crown,  and  the  Catholic  forces,  led  by  an  able  general, 
gained  an  overwhelming  victory  at  White  Hill,  near 
Prague,  in  1620.  The  fortunes  of  war  continued  to  go 
against  the  Protestants  until  Frederick  was  compelled  to 
flee  for  his  life  and  seek  refuge  in  Holland.  His  heredi- 
tary possessions  were  given  to  Maximilian,  Duke  of 
Bavaria,  as  a  reward  for  his  services  in  helping  to  over- 
throw the  Protestant  cause;  and  Frederick's  newly-ac- 
quired kingdom  of  Bohemia  was  laid  prostrate  at  the  feet 


no     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  Ferdinand.  This  zealous  Catholic  now  had  a  fair 
field  in  which  to  display  his  ardent  piety.  In  1621, 
twenty-five  nobles  were  decapitated  before  the  city  gate 
of  Prague;  and,  in  the  course  of  twelve  months,  4,000 
helpless  prisoners  were  precipitated  to  their  death  in  the 
silver  mines  of  Kuttenberg.  Thirty  thousand  burgher 
families  were  sent  into  exile,  and  the  peasants,  who  as 
tillers  of  the  soil  could  not  be  spared  from  the  country 
without  converting  it  into  a  waste  wilderness,  were  sub- 
jected to  every  form  of  outrage  and  cruelty.  The  char- 
acter of  the  persecution  may  be  judged  by  the  fact  that 
the  population  was  reduced  from  three  millions  to  eight 
hundred  thousands,  and  all  visible  signs  of  a  Protestant 
Church  were  obliterated. 

Edict  of  Toleration. — This  was  issued  in  1781  by  the 
emperor,  Joseph  II,  an  emperor  whose  name  will  ever 
be  held  in  affectionate  reverence  by  the  Bohemians.  On 
the  repeal  of  the  old  oppressive  laws,  to  the  surprise  of 
every  one  it  was  discovered  that  the  seeds  of  evangelical 
faith  had  been  growing  in  secret  In  a  short  while  fifty 
congregations  of  Protestant  Christians  were  organized, 
pastors  were  obtained  from  the  neighboring  kingdom  of 
Hungary,  and  prosperity  began  to  dawn  once  again  on 
the  Reformed  Church.  This  day  of  mercy  came  to  an 
end  all  too  soon.  On  the  death  of  Joseph  II,  a  ruler  of 
different  temper  succeeded  to  the  throne,  and  the  old  re- 
pressive measures  were  revived. 

Equal  Rights  Granted  in  1861. — It  was  not  until  1861 
that  the  pressure  of  despotism  was  lifted  from  the  Bo- 
hemian Protestants.  In  that  year  their  church  was 
placed  on  the  list  of  the  <•  Recognized "  communities. 
This  means  that  it  became  a  state  institution  along  with 
many  other  churches.     It  has  ever  since  that  day  been 


AUSTRIA  III 

protected  in  its  social  and  civil  rights.  No  one  dares  to 
interfere  with  its  ministers,  its  people,  or  its  worship. 
But  Austria  has  gone  to  the  other  extreme,  and  her 
policy  of  protection  is  almost  as  destructive  of  ecclesias- 
tical vitality,  as  her  policy  of  oppression.  Instead  of  per- 
mitting one  body  of  Christians  to  usurp  all  rights  and 
persecute  other  Christians,  the  government  now  protects 
each  against  all  others  to  the  extent  of  strictly  forbidding 
all  efforts  at  proselyting.  No  Protestant  without  viola- 
ting the  law,  and  incurring  liability  to  severe  penalty  can 
ask  a  Roman  Catholic  to  join  his  church.  Never  was 
there  a  more  striking  illustration  of  extremes  meeting 
than  in  the  policy  of  Austria  toward  the  many  bodies  of 
Christians  under  her  sway.  She  gives  legal  recognition 
to  Catholics,  Protestants,  Greeks,  Jews,  Lutherans,  Mo- 
ravians, and  Mohammedans,  and  then  builds  a  legal  wall 
around  each  that  practically  takes  away  all  its  liberty. 
The  government  "  fixes  for  each  pastor  the  bounds  of  his 
parish,  and  restricts  him  in  his  evangelistic  efforts  to  the 
people  of  his  own  religious  profession."  It  is  evident 
that  a  church  in  this  restrained  position  can  have  no 
normal  life  and  expansion.  The  tendency,  however,  is  to 
more  liberal  laws,  and  there  is  ground  to  hope  that  the 
Church  which  has  survived  centuries  of  fiery  trial  will 
soon  be  brought  out  into  a  large  and  wealthy  place. 

The  Government  of  the  Church.— This  is  Presbyterian 
in  so  far  as  it  has  autonomy.  The  courts  are  a  session  ; 
a  seniorate,  or  presbytery ;  superintendency,  or  synod ; 
and  a  general  synod.  There  are  some  peculiar  features 
of  polity  in  this  Church.  The  most  marked  are  in  re- 
spect to  the  moderatorship  of  the  courts.  The  modera- 
tor of  the  presbytery  is  elected  for  six  years  and  during 
the  term  of  office,  he  exercises  extensive  episcopal  powers 


112     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

over  all  the  ministers  and  churches  of  the  presbytery, 
visiting  every  church  once  in  three  years  and  inquiring 
into  its  affairs.  The  moderator  of  the  superintendency, 
or  provincial  synod,  is  elected  for  life.  He  likewise  has 
episcopal  oversight  of  the  churches  and  ministers  in  his 
province,  and  must  make  triennial  visits  to  every  parish. 

Over  the  highest  church  court  there  is  a  yet  higher 
civil  court,  called  the  Oberkirchenrath,  which  sustains  a 
common  relation  to  both  the  Reformed  and  the  Lu- 
theran churches.  It  reviews  their  proceedings,  and 
judges  whether  the  churches  have  conformed  in  all  things 
to  both  the  civil  and  the  ecclesiastical  laws.  No  action 
of  the  Church  becomes  final  and  authoritative  until  sanc- 
tioned by  the  emperor. 

The  Reformed  Church  is  restless  under  this  arrange- 
ment, and  has  through  its  highest  court  expressed  its 
purpose  to  strive  for  a  free  and  fully-developed  Presby- 
terian polity. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  give  a  separate  history  of  the 
church  of  Moravia.  The  two  churches  have  had  sub- 
stantially the  same  history,  and  are  now  practically  one. 
Together  they  number  650,000  adherents. 

II.  Hungary  and  Transylvania 
These  two  countries,  which  for  our  purpose  may  be 
treated  as  one,  constitute  at  present  the  eastern  part  of 
the  empire  of  Austria-Hungary.  They  lie  far  toward 
the  southeast  end  of  Europe  and  mark  the  limit  of  the 
Reformation  in  that  direction.  They  have  an  area  of 
108,258  square  miles,  and  are  rich  in  agricultural  and 
mineral  resources.  Through  the  very  heart  of  Hungary, 
for  a  distance  of  eight  hundred  miles,  flows  the  Danube 
River,  navigable  for  nearly  this  whole  distance  for  large 


AUSTRIA  113 

vessels.  This  river,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  a  great 
valley  of  unusual  fertility.  Obviously  all  that  is  wanted 
to  make  Austria-Hungary  one  of  the  great  countries  of 
Europe,  is  a  just  and  liberal  government  that  will  stimu- 
late and  encourage  the  development  of  its  people  and 
their  latent  riches.  It  is  occupied  by  three  principal 
races,  Germans,  Slavons  and  Magyars. 

Beginning  of  the  Hungarian  Church. — The  Refor- 
mation of  the  sixteenth  century  was  not  long  in  making 
itself  felt  in  Hungary.  It  is  estimated  that  between 
the  years  1522,  and  1560,  five  hundred  students  attended 
the  University  of  Wittenberg.  These,  on  returning  to 
their  native  country,  became  teachers  and  preachers,  and 
scattered  the  "  good  seed  of  the  kingdom  "  far  and  wide. 
The  seed  quickly  sprang  up  and  yielded  a  rich  harvest, 
so  that  by  the  year  1545,  the  disciples  of  the  new  doctrine 
were  ready  for  organization.  In  that  year  a  synod  was 
held  at  Erdod  which  adopted  the  Augsburg  Confession, 
thus  giving  to  Lutheranism  a  fixed  and  abiding  form. 

Introduction  of  Calvinism. — The  most  influential  of 
the  early  preachers  was  Mathias  Devay,  who  had  lived 
for  some  years  in  Luther's  family,  and  had  been  a  zealous 
propagator  of  Luther's  views  on  his  return  to  Hungary. 
In  1537,  he  went  to  Basel  for  the  purpose  of  publishing 
a  controversial  work  which  he  had  written.  There  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  Swiss  views  of  the  sacraments, 
was  converted  to  them,  and  preached  them  afterwards 
with  great  effect  to  his  fellow-countrymen.  Luther,  on 
hearing  of  it,  was  very  indignant,  and  wrote  to  his  breth- 
ren in  Hungary,  strongly  condemning  the  teachings  of 
his  former  friend  and  follower.  But  it  was  to  no  pur- 
pose. While  the  Germans  generally  adhered  to  Luther, 
the   native   Hungarians,  or  Magyars,  showed  a  decided 


114     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

preference  for  the  other  views.  In  1558,  Peter  MiHus, 
having  graduated  at  Wittenberg,  took  charge  of  the  in- 
fluential church  of  Debreczin.  Very  soon  he  changed 
from  Luther  to  Calvin,  and  became  the  most  zealous  and 
efficient  leader  of  the  evangelical  movement,  and  was 
honored  by  succeeding  generations  with  the  title  of  the 
*'  Hungarian  Calvin." 

Triumph  of  Calvinism  in  Transylvania. — In  1562, 
Calvin's  catechism  was  introduced  into  the  schools  of 
Transylvania.  This  province  had  been  separated  from 
Hungary  proper,  and  was  ruled  by  a  native  dynasty. 
The  controversy  over  the  two  rival  creeds  was  carried  on 
with  increasing  warmth,  until  finally  a  general  national 
synod  was  convoked  April  9th,  1564,  the  Saxon  Luth- 
erans and  the  Magyar  Calvinists  coming  together  by  the 
king's  permission.  All  attempts  to  make  peace  between 
the  two  parties  failed.  Hence  the  succeeding  state  diet, 
in  the  same  year,  sanctioned  officially  and  forever  the 
separation  into  two  distinct  denominations.  Thus  the 
Reformed  Church  of  Hungary  in  the  province  of  Tran- 
sylvania was  born  only  a  few  months  after  the  death  of 
the  great  Calvin,  from  whose  fertile  mind  it  had  received 
the  mold  both  of  doctrine  and  polity  into  which  it  was 
cast. 

In  this  same  year  some  of  the  Calvinistic  preachers 
and  professors  wrote  to  the  theologians  of  Heidelberg 
for  advice  and  for  arguments  to  aid  them  in  their  con- 
troversy with  the  Lutherans.  The  professors  of  Heidel- 
berg University  sent  with  their  reply  a  copy  of  the  Hei- 
delberg Catechism,  which  had  made  its  advent  into  the 
world  only  the  year  before.  "  Thus  came  into  Hungary 
the  Palatine  Catechism  which  afterwards  conquered  an 
unheard-of  popularity  in  all  parts  of  Hungary,  and  be- 


AUSTRIA  115 

came,  by  and  by,  through  a  common  adherence,  one  of 
the  most  notable  symboHcal  books  in  that  country." 

At  the  Synod  of  Debreczin  in  1567,  the  organization  of 
the  Reformed  Church  was  completed  by  the  adoption  of 
the  second  Helvetic  Confession,  and  seventy-four  articles 
of  Church  Order  and  Discipline. 

In  Hungary  Proper. — It  was  exceedingly  fortunate  for 
the  Protestant  Church  that  Transylvania  became  sepa- 
rated from  the  remaining  part  of  Hungary.  The  native 
princes  who  governed  it,  were  unusually  tolerant  for  that 
age,  and  granted  complete  religious  liberty  to  all  sects, 
Catholics,  Lutherans,  Calvinists  and  Unitarians.  Truth 
being  left  free  to  fight  its  own  battles,  the  Reformed 
Church  made  rapid  progress  for  many  years.  Hungary 
proper  was  ruled  by  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  noted 
throughout  its  long  history  for  a  spirit  of  intolerance  and 
ardent  devotion  to  the  Catholic  Church.  From  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixteenth  century,  the  rulers  of  this  house 
were  under  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  ;  and  it  goes  with- 
out saying  that  they  repressed  Protestantism  to  the  extent 
of  their  power.  They  could  not,  however,  do  more  than 
throw  hindrances  in  its  way  and  retard  its  growth.  By 
the  end  of  the  century,  the  Protestants  were  in  the  ma- 
jority. Rudolph  II  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1576, 
had  been  educated  by  the  Jesuits  at  the  court  of  Spain, 
and  displayed  the  intolerance  that  might  have  been  ex- 
pected. Having  conquered  Transylvania,  he  attempted 
to  repress  the  Protestants  by  violent  persecution. 
Whereupon,  they  rose  in  rebellion  under  Stephen  Botskai 
and  forced  Rudolph,  in  the  peace  of  Vienna  in  1606,  to 
grant  full  religious  liberty.  But  owing  to  the  perpetual 
contentions  between  the  different  sects  of  Protestants, 
and  the  perpetual  intrigues  of  the  ever-industrious  Jesuits, 


ii6     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  Catholics  regained  absolute  control.  During  the  per- 
secutions, beginning  with  Ferdinand  II  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  continuing  with 
greater  or  less  degrees  of  violence  for  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years,  Protestantism  dechned  in  numbers  at  least 
one  half. 

Edict  of  Toleration  in  1781. — The  edict  issued  by 
Joseph  II,  which  has  already  been  referred  to  as  giving 
relief  to  the  Bohemian  Protestants,  did  a  like  beneficent 
service  to  the  Protestants  of  Hungary.  This  good 
emperor  recognized  the  rights  of  conscience,  granted  the 
privileges  of  citizenship  to  all  denominations  of  Christians, 
suppressed  many  convents,  and  greatly  abridged  the 
power  of  the  Pope  and  the  Romish  clergy.  But  his  reign 
was  short,  and  his  successor  repealed  many  of  his  tolerant 
laws,  and  gradually  Austria  settled  back  into  her  old 
status  of  subjection  to  Rome  and  the  Jesuits.  It  is  true 
that  violent  persecution  on  an  extended  scale  came  per- 
manently to  an  end,  but  in  many  ways  Protestantism  has 
had  its  energies  stifled  and  its  growth  dwarfed. 

Present  Condition. — The  population  of  Hungary, 
including  Transylvania,  is  a  little  over  15,000,000.  Only 
3,400,000  are  Protestants.  The  Reformed  Church  has 
2,055  congregations  and  2,794,350  adherents. 

It  was  not  until  1881  that  the  five  superintendencies, 
into  which  the  Church  is  divided,  came  together  in  a 
national  synod,  and  thus  gave  legal  and  visible  form  to 
their  unity.  At  the  first  meeting  of  this  national  synod, 
a  revised  constitution  was  adopted  and  a  relief  society 
organized.  The  form  of  government  is  essentially  Pres- 
byterian, but  with  certain  interesting  modifications. 
These  can  best  be  given  in  the  words  of  one  of  its  own 
members  :     "  Its  home  affairs   and  schools  are  governed 


AUSTRIA  117 

by  its  own  laws.  The  king  of  Hungary  has  his  jus 
supremum  inspectionis,  that  is,  he  has  the  right  to  send 
a  representative  to  the  General  Synod,  and  the  laws 
which  are  made  by  the  synod  must  be  submitted  to  him 
for  his  sanction.  Without  this  the  laws  would  be  worth- 
less, but  with  this  the  laws  of  the  synod  are  of  the  same 
value  as  the  laws  of  the  state.  According  to  these  laws, 
the  Reformed  Church  is  organized  into  congregations, 
classes  and  synods.  The  affairs  of  the  congregation  are 
governed  by  the  general  meeting  of  the  church  members 
and  the  session.  The  actions  of  the  general  meeting  are 
(i)  election  of  ministers  ;  (2)  election  of  session  and  cura- 
tor ;  (3)  the  oversight  of  the  financial  affairs  of  the  congre- 
gation. All  other  affairs  of  the  congregation  are  governed 
by  the  session,  whose  members  are  the  ministers,  the  cura- 
tor, teachers,  and  where  the  congregation  has  a  college, 
one  delegate  from  the  professors.  The  congregations  elect 
members  to  the  session  according  to  their  numerical 
strength."  It  may  be  well  to  explain  that  all  the  con- 
gregations in  a  city  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  one  ses- 
sion. In  the  city  of  Debreczin,  for  example,  where 
there  are  40,000  members  belonging  to  the  Reformed 
Church,  there  are  five  pastors  and  one  hundred  and  eighty 
elders,  composing  the  session.  The  elders  are  elected  for 
a  term  of  twelve  years.  "  Several  congregations  form  a 
classis.  The  presidents  of  the  classis  are  the  subdeacon, 
and  the  curator  of  the  classis,  who  is  a  layman.  These 
are  elected  for  life,  and  both  preside  at  the  meetings. 
Several  classes  form  a  synod.  The  presidents  of  the 
synod  are  the  bishop  and  the  chief  curator.  The  highest 
authority  of  the  Reformed  Church  is  the  conventus,  or 
assembly.  It  is  composed  of  the  bishops,  and  chief 
curators    and   twenty-eight   representatives    of  the   five 


ii8     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

synods."  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  in  this  govern- 
ment an  Episcopalian  element,  even  the  name  bishop 
being  retained.  These  bishops,  however,  are  such  simply 
as  a  matter  of  expediency.  While  they  are  intrusted 
with  the  power  of  general  oversight  they  are  elected  to 
office  by  the  people,  and,  along  with  the  other  ministers, 
are  amenable  to  the  courts  of  the  church. 

The  Hungarian  Church,  like  all  other  "  recognized  " 
communities  in  Austria,  is  really  a  state  institution.  Its 
pastors  are  supported  by  state  aid,  and  its  laws  are  only 
valid  after  receiving  the  emperor's  sanction.  It  is  under 
legal  protection,  and  Hkewise  under  very  strict  legal 
restraint.  No  outsider  can  touch  it  by  way  of  prosely- 
ting, and  it  can  touch  no  outsider.  Manifestly  while  this 
close  supervision  lasts,  the  church  can  grow  only  so  fast 
as  its  own  children  increase. 

Church  Education.— Perhaps  the  most  remarkable 
characteristic  of  the  Hungarian  Reformed  Church  is  its 
self-sacrificing  zeal  in  behalf  of  denominational  education. 
Although  its  members  are  taxed  to  support  state  schools, 
the  church  supports  a  complete  system  of  schools  of  its 
own,  including  primary,  academic,  collegiate  and  even 
professional  schools.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
Catholics  have  such  a  dominating  influence  in  the  govern- 
ment as  to  make  the  schools  practically  Catholic ;  and  the 
Reformed  Church  is  persuaded  that  the  only  way  to  hold 
their  children  to  their  creed  is  to  educate  them  in  their 
own  schools.  At  their  own  expense,  therefore,  they  sus- 
tain a  staff  of  5,000  teachers,  under  whose  tuition  are 
gathered  300,000  children.  In  these  schools,  not  only  is 
Protestant  history  taught,  but  also  the  Heidelberg  Cate- 
chism. The  result  is,  according  to  one  of  their  recent 
writers,  ''  that  neither  ritualistic  tendency,  nor  the  giving 


AUSTRIA  119 

up  of  the  Reformed  religion  occurs  but  exceptionally  and 
very  rarely  in  Hungary."  Here  then  is  the  future  hope 
of  this  church,  in  the  well-rewarded  pains  which  she  takes 
to  •'  train  up  the  child  in  the  way  it  should  go."  Even 
now  a  brighter  day  seems  to  be  dawning  over  Austria. 
It  is  reported  that  within  the  last  few  years  as  many  as 
thirty  thousand  have  been  converted  from  Romanism  to 
Protestantism.  The  laws  are  becoming  more  liberal,  and 
there  is  ground  to  hope  that  soon  "  the  word  of  God  will 
have  free  course,"  with  the  result  that  the  churches  built 
on  that  word  will  enter  on  an  era  of  unexampled  pros- 
perity. 

III.  Other  Continental  Churches 
I.  The  Waldenses. — From  the  days  of  Peter  Waldo, 
who  lived  in  the  twelfth  century,  a  heroic  band  of  Chris- 
tians, taking  their  name  from  him,  have  made  their  home 
in  the  Piedmontese  Alps.  It  would  be  tedious  to  relate 
the  many  persecutions  which  have  imparted  a  tragic 
interest  to  their  history.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  despite 
crusades  and  massacres,  torturings  and  burnings,  in 
which  thousands  nobly  yielded  up  their  lives  on  the  altar 
of  their  faith,  they  never  ceased  to  maintain  an  inflexible 
opposition  to  the  abuses  of  the  papacy,  and  to  bear  wit- 
ness to  a  pure  gospel  and  a  scriptural  worship. 

After  the  days  of  Huss,  they  derived  help  from  the 
Bohemian  brethren  in  purging  out  some  of  the  Romish 
leaven  that  still  marred  their  doctrines ;  and  when  the 
Reformation  of  the  sixteenth  century  burst  forth,  they 
received  further  aid  in  perfecting  their  views  through 
intercourse  with  the  reformers  in  Basel  and  Strassburg. 
Farel,  the  strong,  rugged  and  eloquent  pioneer  of  the 
Reformation  in  France,  attended  a  meeting  of  the  Wal- 


I20     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

densian  Synod  at  Chanforan  in  1532.  At  this  time  they 
declared  their  full  agreement  with  the  teachings  of  Luther 
and  Calvin.  As  illustrating  their  devotion  to  the  word 
of  God,  in  the  light  of  which  they  had  been  earnestly 
striving  to  walk  for  so  many  centuries,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned that  at  this  same  synod,  out  of  their  deep  poverty, 
they  subscribed  1,500  gold  crowns  for  the  pubhcation  of 
a  folio  edition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  a  work 
which  they  intrusted  to  Olivetan,  a  near  kinsman  of 
Calvin. 

Persecutions. — Having  identified  themselves  with  the 
Reformation,  they  became  the  victims  of  fresh  and  hor- 
rible persecutions.  In  1545,  Francis  I,  whose  subjects 
they  were,  gave  them  over  to  the  will  of  their  papal 
enemies.  These  raided  their  peaceful  villages,  utterly 
destroying  twenty-two  of  them,  and  putting  to  death  the 
inhabitants,  men,  women  and  children,  by  methods  as 
cruel  as  malice  could  devise.  A  remnant,  however,  was 
left  to  pass  through  similar  scenes  later.  The  days  of 
fiery  trial  were  not  over  until  about  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  when  northern  Italy  threw  off  the 
papal  yoke,  and  opened  that  part  of  the  country  to 
Protestant  evangelism. 

Returning  Good  for  Evil.— The  Waldenses  at  once  rose 
to  the  occasion,  and  began  to  lengthen  their  cords,  and 
strengthen  their  stakes.  In  1848,  they  founded  a  congre- 
gation in  Florence,  and  made  that  the  center  of  an  active 
propagandism,  and  the  next  year  a  mission  was  begun  in 
Turin. 

When  in  i860  the  whole  of  Italy  was  opened  to  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel,  a  special  committee  was  formed 
for  the  purpose  of  pushing  their  mission  work  among 
their  CathoHc  fellow-countrymen.     Since  1883  this  com- 


AUSTRIA  T2I 

mittee  has  had  its  headquarters  in  the  city  of  Rome, 
thus  ♦'  bearding  the  hon  in  his  den."  Gradually  it  has 
extended  its  operations  until  now  it  has  a  number  of 
schools,  mission  stations,  and  congregations  under  its 
care.  The  sympathy,  which  is  properly  felt  throughout 
Protestant  Christendom  for  the  Waldenses,  secures  aid 
from  various  sources  to  assist  in  sustaining  this  work. 
What  a  noble  revenge  these  humble  Christians  are  taking 
on  their  once  haughty  oppressors !  The  beautiful  and 
familiar  prayer  of  Milton  may  yet  be  answered.  It  is 
meet  that  it  be  kept  familiar. 

Avenge,  O  Lord,  thy  slaughtered  saints,  whose  bones 
Lie  scattered  on  the  Alpine  mountain  cold  ; 
E'en  them,  who  kept  thy  truth  so  pure  of  old. 
When  all  our  fathers  worshiped  stocks  and  stones, 
Forget  not :  in  thy  book  record  their  groans 
Who  were  thy  sheep,  and  in  their  ancient  fold 
Slain  by  the  bloody  Piedmontese,  that  roll'd 
Mother  with  infant  down  the  rocks.     Their  moans 
The  vales  redoubled  to  the  hills,  and  they 
To  heaven.     Their  martyred  blood  and  ashes  sow 
O'er  all  the  Italian  fields,  where  still  doth  sway 
The  triple  tyrant ;  that  from  these  may  grow 
An  hundredfold,  who  having  learnt  thy  way 
Early  may  fly  the  Babylonian  woe ! 

The  only  court  of  the  Waldensian  Church  is  its  gen- 
eral synod,  which  meets  in  Torre  Pellice  always  on  the 
first  Monday  of  September,  each  year.  It  consists  of 
first,  the  eighteen  pastors  of  the  valleys,  with  two  lay 
delegates  from  each  congregation  who  may,  or  may  not 
be  elders  ;  second,  the  professors  of  theology  at  Flor- 
ence ;  third,  the  ordained  ministers  working  under  the 
committee  of  evangehzation ;  fourth,  lay  delegates  from 
the  congregations  in  the  mission  field,  at  the  rate  of  one 


122     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

delegate  for  every  four  hundred  communicants.  This  is 
not  a  Presbyterian  court  in  the  strictest  sense,  but  it  may 
easily  develop  into  one.  The  mission  stations  are  grouped 
into  five  conference  districts,  or  presbyteries,  meeting 
generally  once  a  year,  to  consider  in  an  unofficial  way 
the  interests  of  the  work.  It  is  expected  that  these  will 
grow  into  regular  presbyteries. 

The  official  standard  of  doctrine  in  the  Waldensian 
Church  is  the  confession  of  La  Rochelle,  which  is  the 
Gallic  confession,  drafted  by  Calvin,  adopted  by  the  first 
synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  France  which  met  at 
Paris  in  1559,  and  was  afterwards  revised  and  readopted 
by  the  Synod  of  Rochelle,  1571. 

2.  Churches  of  Belgium. — When  the  Dutch  Republic 
was  founded  by  the  Union  of  Utrecht  in  1579,  only  the 
seven  Northern  Provinces  of  the  Netherlands  entered  the 
union.  The  other  ten  provinces,  partly  by  the  skillful 
diplomacy,  and  partly  by  the  military  genius  of  Alex- 
ander of  Parma,  were  brought  permanently  under  the 
power  of  Rome.  Phihp  II  did  not  relax  his  power  to 
weed  out  all  heretics  from  these  recovered  lands.  He 
consented  to  remove  the  Spanish  troops  from  the  coun- 
try on  condition  that  the  Romish  worship  should  be 
everywhere  restored,  and  Protestantism  abolished.  By 
an  unusual  stretch  of  leniency  he  gave  the  Protestants 
two  years  in  which  to  return  to  the  bosom  of  the 
Catholic  Church,  or  leave  the  country.  The  one  thing 
in  reference  to  which  he  was  uncompromising  was  that 
these  provinces  must  be  absolutely  free  from  the  con- 
tamination of  heresy.  F'rom  that  day  till  this,  Belgium 
has  been  under  Catholic  rule,  and  not  until  1781  was 
there  permitted  the  slightest  dissent  from  the  papal 
creed.     There   was    little    need,   however,   of    religious 


AUSTRIA  123 

liberty,  inasmuch  as  the  Protestant  population  at  that 
time,  including  officials  and  merchants  from  Holland, 
numbered  only  three  thousand  souls.  These  were 
scattered  over  the  country  as  sheep,  having  no  shepherd. 
In  the  year  1839,  as  many  as  could  be  brought  together, 
were  organized  into  seven  churches.  Pastors  were 
secured  from  outside  sources.  These  seven  churches 
have  increased  to  thirteen,  with  a  total  membership  of 
two  thousand  and  eight  hundred.  The  official  name  of 
the  Church  is  The  Union  of  Evangelical  Protestant 
Churches  in  Belgium.  It  has  adopted  no  creed,  but 
accepts  the  Bible  alone  as  the  bond  of  union.  The 
thirteen  congregations  are  united  in  a  general  synod 
which  meets  annually,  and  carries  on  the  general  work 
of  the  Church  through  the  agency  of  three  permanent 
executive  committees. 

The  Belgium  Missionary  Christian  Church. — In 
1834,  Bible  societies  were  organized  in  Brussels,  and  a 
number  of  other  towns,  in  connection  with  the  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  object  was  to  supply 
the  very  great  destitution  of  that  land  that  has  lain  all 
these  centuries  under  the  dominion  of  that  Church 
which  regards  the  Bible  as  a  dangerous  book  to  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  common  people.  The  colporteurs,  in 
carrying  on  the  work  of  these  societies,  have  found  in 
many  places  that  the  good  seed  has  fallen  into  good 
ground.  A  spirit  of  inquiry  has  been  awakened,  and 
under  the  blessing  of  God,  considerable  numbers  have 
been  led  to  renounce  their  connection  with  the  Romish 
Church.  In  view  of  this  state  of  affairs  in  1837,  "the 
Evangelical  Society  "  was  formed  to  work  in  harmony 
with  these  Bible  Societies,  to  look  after  these  new  con- 
verts, and  to  provide  them,  with  the  ordinances  of  the 


124     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

gospel.  By  1849  the  work  had  grown  to  such  dimen- 
sions that  it  was  deemed  wise  to  organize  the  scattered 
behevers  into  churches.  This  was  done,  and  these  new 
organizations  met  together  by  their  representatives  and 
adopted  as  their  standard  of  doctrine  the  Belgic  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  a  confession  prepared  in  1559  by  Guy 
de  Bres,  and  adopted  by  their  brethren  in  Holland  in  the 
Reformation  period.  This  Church  now  numbers  thirty- 
two  congregations  and  1,760  communicants. 

3.  Spanish  Christian  Church. — The  intellectual  con- 
dition of  Spain  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  fact  that 
out  of  a  population  of  17,500,000,  there  are  12,000,000 
who  can  neither  read  nor  write.  The  Catholic  Church 
which  for  centuries  prevented  the  free  circulation  of  the 
Scriptures  succeeded  in  keeping  the  people  so  totally 
illiterate  that  it  was  hardly  worth  while  to  forbid  their 
having  the  Bible.  Now  that  the  way  is  open  to  scatter 
the  word  of  God,  it  is  practically  a  sealed  book  to  the 
vast  majority  of  the  people  after  it  comes  into  their 
hands.  Nevertheless,  the  Protestants  of  other  countries 
began  the  work  of  Bible  distribution  in  Spain  shortly 
after  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  trusting 
that  when  once  the  book  was  in  the  homes  of  the  peo- 
ple, they  would  find  some  means  of  becoming  acquainted 
with  its  message.  There  is  evidence  that  their  expecta- 
tions have  not  been  wholly  disappointed.  In  1868,  a 
revolution  in  the  government  drove  Queen  Isabella  from 
the  throne.  A  regency  was  established  which  pro- 
claimed religious  liberty.  At  once  the  Protestant 
churches  of  Great  Britain  and  the  continent  began  an 
active  campaign  of  evangelism.  It  gave  great  promise ; 
crowds  attended  the  services ;  church  buildings  were 
erected ;  schools  were  opened ;  and  many  congregations 


AUSTRIA  125 

were  organized.  This  bright  promise  was  disappointing. 
The  movement  was  carried  forward  largely  by  political 
influences.  The  crowds  were  attracted  to  the  Protestant 
services  by  their  novelty,  and  many  were  led  to  attach 
themselves  to  the  evangelical  churches  merely  by  way 
of  manifesting  their  new-born  liberty.  In  1874  the 
Bourbon  dynasty  was  restored,  and  with  it  the  dominancy 
of  the  Catholic  Church.  Difficulties  were  thrown  in  the 
way  of  Protestant  propagandism,  and  in  the  day  of  trial, 
it  was  demonstrated  that  much  of  the  seed  that  gave 
such  speedy  signs  of  hfe  had  fallen  on  stony  ground. 
The  quick  and  promising  growth  withered  away.  How- 
ever, there  have  been  some  permanent  victories  won. 
The  results  up  to  the  present  are  a  church  of  thirteen 
congregations,  fourteen  ministers  and  three  hundred 
communicants.  These  are  distributed  in  the  two  pres- 
byteries of  Andalusia  and  Madrid. 

4.  Scattered  Groups. — Throughout  the  different  states 
of  the  German  Empire,  in  Austria,  and  in  Russia,  there 
are  groups  of  churches,  adhering  to  Calvinistic  standards 
of  doctrine;  and  organized,  as  far  as  organization  is 
practicable  to  them,  on  Presbyterian  principles.  In  the 
aggregate,  they  number  about  71,000.  Unfortunately 
they  are  so  situated,  being  hedged  in  by  unfriendly  in- 
fluences, and  closely  restricted  by  government  super- 
vision, that  it  is  almost  impossible  for  them  to  grow  into 
large  dimensions. 


CHAPTER  VI 
SCOTLAND 

Condition  of  the  Country. — Scotland  was  slow  in 
yielding  to  the  authority  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Hav- 
ing received  in  the  sixth  century  a  comparatively  pure 
faith  through  the  labors  of  missionaries  from  Ireland,  it 
was  only  after  a  prolonged  and  strenuous  struggle  that 
she  permitted  the  agents  of  Rome  to  substitute  for  this 
faith  one  less  pure,  and  to  fasten  on  the  country  a  polity 
of  which  the  Pope  was  the  acknowledged  head.  But 
once  having  accepted  the  rule  of  the  papacy,  Scotland 
tested  its  virtues  to  the  utmost,  with  the  result  that  at  the 
opening  of  the  sixteenth  century,  there  was  no  country 
in  the  limits  of  Christendom  that  more  needed  reforming. 
The  light  of  the  new  learning,  which  long  since  had  shed 
its  cheerful  morning  beams  over  southern  and  central 
Europe  had  not  penetrated  to  any  appreciable  extent  the 
darkness  that  had  hung  in  dense  folds  for  weary  centuries 
over  this  rugged  land.  Few  even  of  the  nobles  could 
read,  their  manners  were  rough,  and  their  dispositions 
were  harsh  and  cruel.  There  was  no  central  government 
strong  enough  to  keep  in  subjection  their  turbulent 
spirits.  Feuds  between  the  different  clans,  perpetuated 
from  generation  to  generation,  made  lawlessness  and  vio- 
lence a  chronic  condition.  The  clergy  rivaled  the  gentry 
in  ignorance,  coarseness  and  immorality. 

Owing  to  the  backward  state  of  learning,  the  Refor- 
mation was  slow  in  finding  its  way  to  Scotland.     Ger- 

126 


SCOTLAND  127 

many  and  England  had  felt  the  thrill  of  the  new  life  long 
before  any  decided  impression  was  noticeable  there.  But 
the  Scotch  were  a  sturdy  stock,  and  it  only  needed  the 
light  of  knowledge,  and  the  stimulus  of  new  motives  to 
work  a  speedy  and  marvelous  transformation.  In  no 
land  did  the  new  doctrines  take  deeper  root,  or  produce 
a  more  bountiful  and  blessed  harvest. 

Beginning  of  the  Reformation. — The  first  voice  raised 
effectively  against  the  established  order  was  that  of  Pat- 
rick Hamilton.  He  was  of  a  noble  family,  studied  abroad 
in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  elsewhere,  was  unusually 
proficient  in  languages  and  philosophy,  held  intercourse 
with  Erasmus,  came  into  contact  with  some  of  the  re- 
formers, and  returned  to  his  native  land  with  a  wide 
intellectual  horizon  and  a  heart  in  love  with  the  truth. 
Soon  he  had  the  opportunity,  which  he  embraced,  of 
commending  the  teachings  of  the  New  Testament  to  his 
countrymen.  This  excited  the  alarm  of  the  Church 
authorities,  and  on  the  advice  of  his  friends,  Hamilton 
went  back  to  the  continent.  On  this  visit  he  had  further 
intercourse  with  the  reformers,  meeting  Frith  and  Tyn- 
dale  and  Lambert  at  Marburg.  His  desire  to  preach 
Christ  in  his  native  land  grew  until  he  resolved  to  carry 
it  into  effect  at  the  risk  of  life.  Returning  in  the  autumn 
of  1527,  he  preached  for  a  short  while  with  great  success, 
winning  to  the  faith  a  number  of  his  kinsmen.  He  also 
won  the  heart  and  hand  of  a  noble  young  lady  whom  he 
married,  only  to  leave  a  widow  in  a  few  brief  weeks.  In 
February  of  1528,  he  was  arrested,  tried  and  found  guilty 
of  teaching  that  •'  a  man  is  not  justified  by  works,  but  by 
faith ;  that  faith,  hope  and  charity  are  so  linked  together 
that  if  a  man  have  one,  he  will  have  all;  and  that  good 
works  maketh  not  a  good  man,  but  a  good  man  doeth 


128     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

good  works  "  ;  and  being  further  pressed,  he  affirmed  that 
"  it  is  not  lawful  to  worship  images,  nor  to  pray  to  saints  ; 
and  that  it  is  lawful  for  all  men  that  have  souls  to  read 
the  word  of  God."  He  was  burned  at  the  stake  on  the 
same  day  that  he  was  tried  and  convicted.  But  even  this 
radical  and  summary  method  of  procedure  proved  not 
altogether  effective,  for  "  the  reek  of  Patrick  Hamilton 
infected  all  on  whom  it  did  blow."  It  was  eighteen  years, 
however,  before  the  Romish  Church  was  put  to  the 
necessity  of  burning  another  distinguished  heretic.  This 
time  it  was  George  Wishart,  described  by  one  of  his 
pupils,  as  "  a  man  modest,  temperate,  courteous,  lowly, 
lovely,  fearing  God,  hating  covetousness,  his  learning  no 
less  sufficient  than  his  desire  to  do  good."  Cardinal 
Beaton,  the  same  dignitary  who  had  brought  Hamilton 
to  the  stake,  presided  at  the  trial  of  Wishart,  and  from  an 
upper  window  of  the  castle  of  St.  Andrews,  feasted  his 
eyes  on  the  dying  agonies  of  the  "  lowly  and  lovely  " 
young  man. 

John  Knox. — It  would  have  been  a  master  stroke  for 
his  side  of  the  controversy,  if  Cardinal  Beaton  had  been 
a  little  more  prompt  in  putting  George  Wishart  out  of  the 
way.  As  it  was,  he  neglected  this  important  matter  until 
Wishart  had  been  used  of  God  to  convert  John  Knox, 
and  then  it  was  too  late  to  burn  him.  He  has  done  that 
which  all  the  cardinals  cannot  undo,  and  which  will 
bring  everlasting  disaster  on  the  cause  they  represent. 

Knox  was  born  in  1505,  and  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  St.  Andrews  for  the  priesthood.  He  took 
orders  about  1530,  and  soon  after  that  began  to  feel  the 
influence  of  the  evangelical  doctrines  with  which  he 
came  in  contact  from  time  to  time.  It  was  not,  however, 
until  he  met  with  Wishart  in  1544  that  he  broke  with  the 


SCOTLAND  129 

Church  of  Rome.  He  attached  himself  very  closely  to 
Wishart,  attending  him  from  place  to  place,  and  after  a 
fanatical  priest  had  tried  to  assassinate  Wishart,  Knox 
carried  a  sword,  with  which  to  defend  him.  After  Wis- 
hart's  death  he  exchanged  this  sword  for  the  sword  of  the 
Spirit,  and  found  in  this  a  weapon  which  he  could  wield 
with  such  power  as  to  appall  the  hearts  of  his  stoutest 
adversaries.  It  was  not  long  before  serious  dangers  be- 
gan to  threaten  him.  In  1547,  he  took  refuge  in  the 
Castle  of  St.  Andrews  along  with  those  Protestants  who 
had  assassinated  Cardinal  Beaton,  thus  showing  that  he 
had  no  tears  to  shed  over  that  deed.  The  castle  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Regent  of  Scotland,  aided  by  a  French 
fleet.  When  at  length  it  was  forced  to  surrender,  Knox 
was  carried  a  prisoner  to  France,  and  made  to  row  in  the 
galleys,  chained  to  an  oar.  He  served  on  this  ancient 
form  of  the  •'  chain  gang  "  for  nineteen  months.  Ac- 
cording to  the  testimony  of  one  of  his  fellow-prisoners, 
Sir  James  Balfour,  he  uttered,  on  one  occasion  during 
this  confinement,  a  memorable  prophecy.  While  they 
lay  on  the  coast  between  St.  Andrews  and  Dundee,  Sir 
James,  pointing  to  the  spires  of  St.  Andrews  asked  him 
if  he  knew  the  place.  "  Yes,  I  know  it  well,"  was  the 
reply,  "  for  I  see  the  steeple  of  that  place  where  God  first 
opened  my  mouth  in  public  to  his  glory ;  and  I  am  fully 
persuaded,  how  weak  soever  I  now  appear,  that  I  shall 
not  depart  this  life,  till  that  my  tongue  shall  glorify  his 
godly  name  in  the  same  place." 

Sojourn   in   England Released    from   the  galleys   in 

1549,  Knox  went  to  England,  where  the  Reformation 
under  the  reign  of  Edward  VI  was  making  unrestrained 
and  prosperous  headway.  The  king  showed  great 
respect  to  Knox,  appointing  him  one  of  his  chaplains. 


I30     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

He  was  likewise  greatly  honored  by  the  leading  reformers, 
who  consulted  him  about  the  prayer  book  and  offered 
him  a  bishopric  which  he  declined.  He  remained,  how- 
ever, for  some  years  in  England,  preaching  at  Berwick 
and  New  Castle. 

An  Exile  on  the  Continent, — When  Mary  came  to  the 
throne,  it  soon  became  manifest  that  there  was  no  longer 
any  room  for  Knox  in  that  kingdom.  He  went  to  the 
continent,  and  after  wandering  around  somewhat  aim- 
lessly for  a  time,  he  made  his  way  to  Geneva.  There  he 
met  a  congenial  spirit  in  the  illustrious  Calvin,  and  soon 
their  acquaintance  ripened  into  a  close  friendship  which 
lasted  tin  Calvin's  death  in  1564.  At  the  end  of  eighteen 
months  Knox  returned  to  Scotland.  Just  at  that  juncture 
the  Regent,  Mary  of  Guise,  was  permitting  the  persecuted 
saints  of  England  to  find  a  refuge  in  her  kingdom,  and 
winking  at  their  quiet  dissemination  of  evangelical  doc- 
trines. This  was  not  because  she  hated  heretics  less,  but 
because  she  hated  "  Bloody  Mary "  and  her  newly-ac- 
quired husband,  Philip  II  of  Spain,  more.  Knox  was 
encouraged  to  believe  that  he  could  safely  venture  back 
to  his  native  land.  On  his  arrival  he  was  rejoiced  to  find 
many  ears  that  were  eager  for  the  truth.  Writing  from 
Edinburgh  to  his  mother-in-law,  who  was  in  Berwick,  he 
says :  "  If  I  had  not  seen  it  with  my  eyes  in  my  own 
country,  I  could  not  have  believed  it.  I  praised  God, 
when  I  was  with  you,  perceiving  that  in  the  midst  of 
Sodom,  God  had  more  Lots  than  one,  and  more  faithful 
daughters  than  two.  But  the  fervency  here  doth  far 
exceed  all  others  that  I  have  seen.  And  therefore  ye 
shaU  patiently  bear,  although  I  spend  here  yet  some  days  ; 
for  depart  I  cannot,  until  such  time  as  God  quench  their 
thirst  a  little."     He  remained  in  Scotland  hardly  a  year, 


SCOTLAND  131 

but  he  preached  almost  daily,  mostly  in  private  houses, 
traveling  from  place  to  place,  thus  making  the  greatest 
possible  use  of  the  brief  time.  The  results  of  this  visit 
were  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the  cause  of  reform.  He 
strengthened  the  timid,  confirmed  the  wavering,  and  won 
over  many  distinguished  noblemen.  But  thinking  the 
time  was  not  ripe  yet  for  a  decisive  conflict  he  accepted  a 
call  from  an  English  congregation  at  Geneva  to  be- 
come their  pastor,  and  went  back  to  that  city.  Never- 
theless the  revolution  of  thought  went  on,  and  in  1557  a 
number  of  nobles  and  gentlemen  at  Edinburgh  signed  a 
covenant,  engaging  to  "  renounce  the  congregation  of 
Satan,  with  all  the  superstitions,  abominations  and 
idolatry  thereof;  and  to  defend  the  whole  congregation  of 
Christ  and  every  member  thereof."  This  was  the  begin- 
ning of  the  crystallization  of  the  Reformed  movement,  and 
was  the  first  of  the  covenants  by  which  the  Protestants 
from  time  to  time  bound  themselves  in  subsequent  crises 
of  their  history. 

Permanent  Return  of  Knox. — The  current  of  events 
was  setting  ever  more  rapidly  and  strongly  toward  refor- 
mation. 

It  was  time  now  for  Knox  to  be  back  among  his 
countrymen  to  add  the  weight  of  his  great  influence  and 
to  give  direction  to  the  trend  of  afTairs.  Receiving  an 
urgent  invitation  from  numerous  adherents  of  the  new 
faith,  he  returned  to  Scotland  in  the  early  part  of  the  year 
1559.  He  lifted  up  his  voice  in  trumpet  tones,  calHng  the 
people  to  separation  from  the  iniquities  of  Rome, 
and  to  a  strenuous  '  conflict  with  her  idolatry.  He 
stirred  the  emotions  of  the  populace  to  such  a  pitch 
as  to  result  in  many  places  in  an  iconoclastic  cru- 
sade.    Images   were   destroyed,    and   monasteries  were 


132     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

demolished.  Passions  grew  more  violent  on  both  sides, 
and  at  length  the  Queen  Regent  resorted  to  arms  to  put 
down  the  turbulent  reformers.  The  "  Lords  of  the  Con- 
gregation," as  the  leaders  of  the  Protestant  movement 
were  called,  met  arms  with  arms.  The  Regent  called  in 
the  aid  of  French  troops  ;  the  reformers  secured  the  assist- 
ance of  the  English.  For  about  a  year  the  country  was 
in  the  throes  of  a  civil  war,  but  fortunately  it  was  brought 
to  a  close  with  very  little  bloodshed.  In  June  of  1560, 
the  Regent  died,  and  a  treaty  was  concluded  which 
involved  the  withdrawal  of  both  the  French  and  the  Eng- 
lish troops  from  the  land  and  the  placing  of  the  govern- 
ment temporarily  in  the  hands  of  a  regency  of  noblemen. 

Establishment  of  the  Reformed  Religion. — The  Par- 
liament met  on  the  ist  day  of  August,  1560,  and  was  in 
session  for  twenty-one  days.  It  stuck  the  knife  deep  and 
performed  some  radical  surgery.  Not  content  with 
removing  certain  offensive  excrescences  from  the  old 
system,  it  proceeded  to  cut  it  up  by  the  roots.  It 
abolished  the  power  of  the  Pope,  repealed  all  the  laws 
that  gave  validity  to  the  papal  hierarchy,  and  enacted  the 
death  penalty  for  the  third  offense  of  celebrating  mass. 
It  did  not  stop  with  merely  negative  and  destructive  legis- 
lation. It  adopted  a  Confession  of  Faith,  which,  by  its 
orders  had  been  drafted  by  six  Johns,  the  chiefest  of 
whom  was  John  Knox. 

The  First  General  Assembly. — This  met  on  the  20th 
day  of  December,  1560,  and  was  composed  of  forty  mem- 
bers, only  six  of  whom  were  ministers.  Perhaps,  the 
most  important  work  of  this  assembly  was  the  adoption 
of  a  Book  of  Discipline,  which  had  been  prepared  pre- 
viously under  direction  of  the  Privy  Council,  by  the  same 
Johns  who  had  drafted  the  Confession  of  Faith.     This 


SCOTLAND  133 

book  defined  what  doctrine  should  be  taught  in  the 
Church,  what  quahfications  must  be  possessed  by  those 
who  should  be  admitted  to  the  ministry,  how  these  should 
be  settled  in  their  charges,  what  other  officers  should  be 
appointed  in  the  Church,  how  the  ministry  should  be 
supported,  discipline  administered,  marriage  regulated, 
and  the  sacraments  dispensed. 

Flexibility  of  the  Church's  Polity. — As  might  be  ex- 
pected, this  book  shows  the  effect  of  Knox's  stay  in 
Geneva,  but  it  likewise  shows  that  Knox  had  a  mind  of 
his  own.  He  modified  the  Genevan  discipline  to  suit  the 
peculiar  circumstances  of  Scotland.  Instead  of  one  city, 
here  was  a  vast  extent  of  territory  to  provide  for.  It  was 
far  from  the  disposition  of  Knox  to  sacrifice  the  needs  of 
the  people  to  the  demands  of  a  theory.  In  laying  the 
foundations  of  the  church  organization,  he  proceeded  on 
the  supposition  that  the  polity  of  the  Church  was  for  the 
people,  not  the  people  for  the  polity.  Consequently  he 
did  not  hesitate  to  mar  the  ideal  system  in  deference  to 
practical  utility.  The  reason  there  were  only  six  minis- 
ters in  this  first  Assembly  was  because  there  were  only 
thirteen  in  the  whole  kingdom.  What  could  this  little 
handful  do  toward  meeting  the  wholesale  and  urgent 
demands  ?  There  was  little  material  from  which  to 
augment  their  numbers.  Provision  was  made,  there- 
fore, for  the  employment  of  unofficial  readers,  whose  sole 
business,  at  the  first,  was  to  assemble  the  people  and  read 
to  them  the  word  of  God.  A  much-needed  function  this 
was,  seeing  that  few  of  the  people  could  read  this  word 
for  themselves.  It  was  demanded  of  these  readers  that 
after  becoming  familiar  with  the  teachings  of  scriptures 
they  should  add  to  reading  exhortation ;  and  it  was  fur- 
ther contemplated  that  while  engaged  in  these  exercises. 


134     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

they  should  fit  themselves  for  the  office  of  the  ministry 
and  receive  ordination.  It  was  from  the  ranks  of  these 
that  the  ministry  was  to  receive  most  of  its  first  recruits. 

Another  temporary  provision  was  the  office  of  superin- 
tendent. Those  holding  this  office  were  ordained  minis- 
ters, to  each  of  whom  was  assigned,  in  addition  to  the 
pastorate  of  a  church,  the  oversight  of  a  particular  cir- 
cuit. He  was  not  to  remain  in  his  church  more  than 
three  or  four  months  at  a  time,  and  then  he  must  visit 
throughout  his  circuit,  examining  the  doctrine,  life,  dih- 
gence  and  behavior  of  ministers,  readers,  elders  and  dea- 
cons. The  superintendents  were  to  admonish,  and  to 
correct  as  best  they  could  by  their  counsels  whatever 
they  should  find  out  of  order.  But  they  were  subject  to 
the  same  discipline  and  jurisdiction  as  all  the  other  min- 
isters. 

It  is  questionable  whether  all  the  Presbyterian  churches 
since  the  days  of  Knox  have  been  as  wise  in  adapting 
their  machinery  to  meet  peculiar  and  urgent  needs.  It  is 
to  be  feared  that  some  of  them  have  failed  to  "  go  up  and 
possess  the  land,"  which  by  right  of  inheritance  belonged 
to  them  because  they  were  hampered  by  a  polity  too 
rigid  and  inflexible.  Possibly  they  have  too  persistently 
refused  to  recognize  in  the  practical  administration  of 
Church  affairs  that  "  half  a  loaf  is  better  than  no  bread." 

Mary  Queen  of  Scots. — When  James  V  died,  he  left 
an  infant  daughter,  who  had  been  educated  in  the  court 
of  France,  had  been  married  to  Francis  II,  had  reigned 
with  him  over  the  kingdom  of  France  for  two  years,  had 
then  been  left  a  widow,  and  now  returned  to  Scotland  on  the 
19th  of  August,  1 561,  "  with  a  purpose  fixed  as  the  stars 
to  trample  down  the  Reformation."  She  was  not  yet 
twenty  years  of  age,  radiantly  beautiful,  cultured,  clever, 


SCOTLAND  135 

vivacious,  and  with  it  all  she  was  utterly  unscrupulous. 
Froude  gives  an  inventory  of  her  qualities  :  "  She  had 
vigor,  energy,  tenacity  of  purpose,  with  perfect  and 
never  failing  self-possession,  and  as  the  one  indispensable 
foundation  for  the  effective  use  of  all  other  qualities,  she 
had  indomitable  courage."  With  such  an  accumulation 
of  rare  gifts  and  accomplishments  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  she  threw  a  spell  over  all  the  courtiers  who 
approached  her.  But  she  was  half  French  by  birth,  and 
altogether  French  by  rearing.  When  she  fixed  her  pur- 
pose to  trample  down  the  Reformation,  she  was  utterly 
incapable  of  measuring  the  magnitude  of  the  task  which 
she  had  set  for  herself.  There  were,  indeed,  some  ele- 
ments of  strength  still  belonging  to  the  old  order  of 
things,  and  if  Mary  had  continued  as  she  began,  patient, 
conciliatory,  and  willing  to  leave  matters  largely  under 
the  direction  of  her  brother,  while  she  bided  her  time, 
she  might  have  postponed  the  day  of  complete  victory 
for  Protestantism  for  some  years  to  come.  But  Mary 
was  her  own  worst  enemy.  She  permitted  her  heart  to 
run  away  with  judgment  and  discretion.  She  made  two 
of  the  most  criminally  reckless  marriages  that  it  was  pos- 
sible for  her  to  make.  The  first  was  with  her  cousin. 
Lord  Darnley,  three  years  her  junior,  a  weak,  vain  and 
profligate  boy.  After  rendering  himself  odious  to  Mary 
by  participating  in  the  murder  of  her  favorite,  he  was 
himself  murdered  in  circumstances  which  cast  serious 
suspicion  on  Mary.  Three  months  thereafter  she  mar- 
ried the  Earl  of  Both  well,  whom  everybody  believed  to 
have  been  the  principal  agent  in  the  brutal  taking  off  of 
Darnley.  Such  an  open  outrage  on  all  decency  was  too 
much  for  her  subjects.  They  rose  in  arms,  took  her  by 
constraint  from  her  bloody  husband,  put  her  in  prison 


136     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

and  forced  her  to  abdicate  her  crown  in  favor  of  her  in- 
fant son.  She  soon  made  her  escape,  rallied  a  respecta- 
ble body  of  troops  to  her  standard,  was  worsted  in  battle, 
fled  to  England,  became  a  center  of  popish  plots  against 
the  throne  of  Elizabeth  and  finally  lost  her  beautiful  and 
wayward  head.  Surely  no  such  gifted  woman  ever  de- 
scended from  such  lofty  elevation  down  the  declivity  of 
sin  and  shameless  folly  to  utter  destruction  so  quickly  as 
did  Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  She  ran  her  inglorious  career 
in  Scotland  in  the  short  space  of  six  years. 

Last   Years   and    Death   of  John   Knox.— From   the 
meeting  of  the  first  Assembly  in  1560,  John  Knox  took 
the  lead  in  shaping  the  policy  of  the  Church  in  its  con- 
flict with  the  remaining  forces  of  the  papacy.     He  bore 
the  brunt  of  the  battle  during  the  years  that  Queen  Mary 
tried  by  the  arts  of  intrigue,  by  cajolery,  and  by  the  use  of 
all  the  means  at  her  command  to  destroy  the  work  of  the 
reformers.     She   refused  to  ratify  the  acts  of  Parliament, 
establishing  the  Reformed  religion ;  she  won  over  to  her 
side    many   powerful  nobles  ;  and  she  put  out  her  full 
strength  on   Knox.     She  tried  flattery ;  she  tried  tears, 
the  most  formidable  v/eapon  that  a  young,  beautiful,  and 
widowed  queen  could  wield ;  she  tried  threats,  and  finally 
had  him  brought  before    the  privy   council  to  fasten  on 
him  the  charge  of  treason.     Through  it  all  he  bore  him- 
self with  an   inflexible  front.     His   life  was  a  perpetual 
scene  of  conflict,  his  last  two  years  especially  were  filled 
with  sorrow  by  the  assassination  of  his  illustrious  friend, 
the  Regent  Murray,  and  by  the   alarming  disorders  that 
followed.     Matters,  however,  had  assumed  a  brighter  face 
toward  the  cause  for  which  he  had  fought  and  suffered 
before  he  sank  to  rest  in  November,  1572. 

The  "  Convention  of  Leith."— In  the  year  of  Knox's 


SCOTLAND 


137 


death  a  notable  convention  was  held  at  Leith,  called  at 
the  instance  of  some  of  the  nobles  for  the  purpose  of  se- 
curing for  themselves  the  rich  revenues  of  the  former 
bishoprics.  Before  the  Reformation,  the  bishops  and 
archbishops  had  princely  incomes  from  lands  which  at- 
tached to  their  offices.  Their  offices  having  been  abol- 
ished, the  question  was,  Who  should  enjoy  the  revenues  ? 
The  first  Book  of  Discipline  provided  that  all  revenues 
arising  from  the  old  ecclesiastical  properties  should  be 
used  for  the  support  of  the  ministry,  the  schools,  and  the 
poor.  To  quote  the  somewhat  irreverent  language  of 
Froude :  "  The  gaunt  and  hungry  nobles  of  Scotland, 
careless  most  of  them  of  God  or  devil,  had  been  eyeing 
the  sleek  and  well-fed  clergy  of  Rome  like  a  pack  of 
famished  wolves."  Now  that  these  clergy  had  been 
ousted,  "  the  gaunt  and  hungry  nobles  "  were  eager  to 
pounce  upon  the  spoil.  Technically  the  revenues  of  the 
bishoprics  could  be  collected  only  by  bishops ;  but  as 
the  Reformed  Church  had  no  bishops  no  one  could  law- 
fully collect  the  revenues.  This  Assembly  was  called  at 
Leith  to  appoint  bishops,  it  being  understood  that  their 
office  was  merely  nominal.  Lifluenced  by  Regent  Mor- 
ton, the  assembly  restored  the  old  titles.  The  greedy 
nobles  then  proceeded  to  secure  the  appointment  of  crea- 
tures of  their  own,  who  were  required  to  stipulate  in  ad- 
vance to  turn  over  the  revenues  of  their  office  to  those  to 
whom  they  owed  their  appointment.  Those  who  per- 
mitted themselves  to  be  thus  used  were  called 
"  Tulchan  Bishops  " — tulchan  being  a  stuffed  calfskin  set 
up  by  the  side  of  a  cow  which  had  lost  her  calf  to  make 
her  give  down  her  milk.  This  term  indicates  that  these 
bishops  were  universally  derided,  but  their  anomalous  po- 
sition was  the  cause,  or  occasion  at  least,  of  later  trouble. 


138     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Andrew  Melville.— In    1574   there   entered   into  the 
struggles  of  the  Church,  a  champion  of  rehgious  Hberty 
and    of  Presbyterian  pohty  whose   name   is    placed  by 
many  next  on  the  roll  of  fame  to  that  of  Knox.    Andrew 
Melville  was  born  in    1545,  educated  at  St.  Andrews, 
studied  in  Paris  two  years,  and  then  spent  five  years  in 
Geneva,  teaching  in  the  Academy  of  Geneva,  and  study- 
ing  theology  under  Theodore    Beza,  the   distinguished 
successor  of  John  Calvin.     When  he  returned  to  Scot- 
land in   1574,  he  found  that  trouble  had  already  arisen, 
and  worse  trouble  was  threatened,  through  the  machi- 
nations   of  the  civil  government  to   destroy  the  liber- 
ties  of  the  Church  by  introducing  under  the  shadowy 
forms   of  the  tulchan  bishops  a  thoroughgoing  episco- 
pacy.    He  entered  into  the  defense  of  presbytery  with 
great  ardor,  and  by  calling  into  requisition  his  consum- 
mate knowledge  of  Greek,  a  language  which  he  spoke 
with  fluency,  he  succeeded  after  a  protracted  struggle  in 
winning  a  temporary  victory.     He  demonstrated  to  the 
satisfaction  of  the  assembly  that  in  the  New  Testament, 
bishop   and   presbyter   are    merely  two    names    for   the 
same  office  ;  and  the  assembly,  without  a  dissenting  voice, 
abolished  every  remaining  trace  of  episcopacy.     In  1578, 
the  second  Book  of  Discipline,  the  authorship  of  which 
is  ascribed  to  Melville,  supplanted  the  book  drafted  by 
Knox  and  his  associates.     In  this  second  book,  the  rela- 
tion between  Church  and  state  is  more  clearly  defined, 
the   independence   of  the   Church   in  spiritual  things  is 
affirmed,  and  the  duties   of  the  various  officers  of  the 
Church   are   more  accurately  stated.     It  embodied  the 
purest  type  of  Presbyterianism  which  had  yet  been  set 
forth  in  the  formularies  of  any  of  the  Reformed  churches. 
Renewal  of  the  Conflict. — In  the  year  1578,  James  VI 


SCOTLAND 


139 


took  the  reins  of  power  from  the  hands  of  the  Regent 
Morton,  and  nominally  began  to  rule  in  his  own  name. 
He  was  but  twelve  years  of  age,  and  soon  fell  under  the 
dominant  influence  of  bad  advisers.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  years,  efforts  were  renewed  to  bring  the  Church 
under  the  power  of  the  crown.  The  articles  of  Leith 
were  revived,  creating  the  tulchan  bishops.  One  of  the 
king's  favorites  was  made  Archbishop  of  Glasgow.  The 
Church  excommunicated  him.  The  privy  council  pro- 
nounced the  excommunication  null  and  void.  Melville 
thundered  against  these  encroachments  on  the  Church's 
liberties.  He  was  charged  with  treason,  and  prudently 
retired  across  the  border.  The  Parliament  which  met  in 
1584  passed  the  "  Black  Acts,"  by  which  the  liberties  of 
the  Church  were  completely  taken  away,  and  the  king 
and  privy  council  were  empowered  to  regulate  ecclesi- 
astical matters  at  their  will.  Soon  Melville  returned  from 
exile  and  took  up  the  gauge  of  battle  again.  He  did 
not  cease  from  the  arduous  conflict  until  in  1592,  Parlia- 
ment passed  an  act  ratifying  the  form  of  government  as 
then  administered  by  general  assemblies,  synods,  presby- 
teries and  kirk-sessions. 

The  Vascillating  Policy  of  the  King.— If  the  slightest 
faith  could  have  been  put  in  the  character  of  the  king 
there  would  have  been  no  further  trouble.  He  made 
loud  protestations  of  admiration  for  the  Church,  and 
loyalty  to  it.  In  1590,  he  married  a  Danish  princess. 
During  the  honeymoon,  he  visited  the  General  Assembly, 
and  made  a  speech  that  delighted  the  hearts  of  the 
brethren.  He  praised  God  "  that  he  was  born  in  such  a 
time,  as  the  time  of  the  light  of  the  gospel,  and  to  be 
king  in  the  sincerest  kirk  in  the  world.  The  kirk  of 
Geneva  keepeth  Pasche  and  Yule  (Easter  and  Christmas). 


I40     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

What  have  they  for  them?  They  have  no  institution. 
As  for  our  neighbor  kirk  of  England,  it  is  an  ill-said 
mass  in  English,  wanting  nothing  but  the  Hftings.  I 
charge  you  my  good  people,  ministers,  doctors,  nobles, 
gentlemen,  and  barons,  to  stand  to  your  purity,  and  I 
forsooth,  so  long  as  I  brook  my  life  and  crown  shall 
maintain  the  same  against  all  deadly."  There  was  never 
a  more  propitious  moment  for  James  to  have  been  trans- 
lated than  that.  Unfortunately  it  could  not  be,  and  two 
kingdoms  were  none  the  better  off  because  it  could  not 
be.  It  was  not  long  before  he  was  plotting  against  the 
*'  sincerest  kirk  in  the  world,"  and  trying  to  take  away 
all  liberty  of  action  from  its  courts,  and  all  liberty  of 
speech  from  its  ministers.  He  was  filled  with  a  conceit 
of  the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  that  included  the  de- 
nial of  all  rights  to  his  subjects.  He  provoked  the  brave 
Melville  into  giving  him  some  wholesome  doctrine  on 
the  subject  of  Church  and  state.  "  I  must  tell  you,"  said 
he,  "  that  there  are  two  kings  and  two  kingdoms  in  Scot- 
land; there  is  King  James,  the  head  of  the  common- 
wealth ;  and  there  is  King  Jesus,  the  head  of  the  Church, 
whose  subject  James  VI  is,  and  of  whose  kingdom,  he  is 
not  a  king,  nor  a  head,  nor  a  lord,  but  a  member.  We 
will  yield  to  you  your  place,  and  give  you  all  due  obe- 
dience ;  but  again  I  say  you  are  not  the  head  of  the 
Church."  Good  as  was  this  doctrine,  James  did  not 
relish  it,  and  continued  his  efforts  to  get  control  of  the 
Church  until  he  succeeded  in  having  three  bishops  ap- 
pointed, with  seats  in  Parliament  as  spiritual  lords.  He 
was  greatly  stimulated  in  his  purpose  to  have  obsequious 
bishops  through  whom  he  could  manage  the  Church  by 
the  example  and  success  of  his  cousin  over  in  the  ad- 
joining kingdom.     He  saw  how  beautifully  the  scheme 


SCOTLAND  1 41 

worked  in  England,  how  Elizabeth  as  head  of  the  Church, 
and  with  the  power  of  making  bishops  in  her  own  hand 
was  able  to  regulate  everything  from  the  standard  of 
doctrine  down  to  the  "  bib  and  tuck  "  to  be  worn  by  the 
parish  priest. 

James  I  of  England. — In  1603  James  VI  of  Scotland 
succeeded  Elizabeth  as  James  I  of  England.  The  lead- 
ing Puritans  of  England,  who  had  long  grieved  that  the 
royal  head  of  the  Church  seemed  to  exercise  so  much 
more  authority  than  the  divine  Head,  rejoiced  in  the 
coming  of  the  Scotch  Presbyterian.  They  met  him 
with  a  petition  signed  by  nearly  a  thousand  names,  pray- 
ing for  a  httle  more  liberty  to  obey  God  on  the  ordering 
of  the  worship  of  his  house.  James  appointed  a  con- 
ference, to  which  he  invited  nine  bishops,  seven  deans 
and  two  other  clergymen  to  meet  four  Puritans,  ap- 
parently thinking  the  two  parties  would  thus  be  equally 
matched.  They  were  to  discuss  matters  in  dispute  be- 
tween them,  and  he  was  to  act  as  judge.  This  was  a 
delightful  change  from  his  previous  position.  It  did  not 
take  the  king  long  to  see  that  the  bishops  were  on  his 
side.  In  fact,  he  saw  this  long  before  he  left  Scotland. 
The  conference  was  a  mere  pretense,  a  farce ;  but  it  fur- 
nished the  occasion  for  James  to  declare  himself.  This 
he  did  in  very  emphatic  terms,  accusing  the  Puritans  of 
a  purpose  to  bring  in  a  Scotch  presbytery,  "  which,"  said 
he,  "  agreeth  with  monarchy  as  God  with  the  devil." 
The  bishops  were  much  delighted,  crying  out,  "  A  Daniel 
come  to  judgment,"  and  gave  it  as  their  opinion  that 
"  not  since  the  days  of  Solomon  had  so  wise  a  king  sat 
on  a  throne."  James  brought  the  conference  to  a  close 
by  telling  his  Puritan  subjects  that  he  would  make  them 


142     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

conform  to  the  prayer  book,  or  **  harry  them  out  of  the 
kingdom." 

This  was  practically  a  notification  to  his  Scotch  people 
that  he  would  use  whatever  advantage  his  new  position 
gave  him  in  carrying  out  the  purpose  already  inaugurated 
to  make  the  "  sincerest  kirk  in  the  world,"  the  facsimile 
of  the  most  subservient  church  in  the  world.  It  was  not 
long  before  he  had  his  three  Scotch  bishops  brought 
down  to  London,  and  linked  on  to  the  chain  of  apostolic 
succession,  by  a  regular  bona  fide  Episcopal  consecration, 
and  sent  them  back  with  the  precious  deposit  of  the 
grace  of  orders  in  their  hands  to  propagate  the  succession 
in  his  native  land. 

James  Visits  Scotland. — In  the  year  1617,  the  king, 
to  use  his  own  expression  "  indulged  his  natural  and  sal- 
mon-like affection  for  the  place  of  his  breeding."  It  is 
altogether  probable  that  affection  had  less  to  do  with  it 
than  kingcraft.  He  had  certain  schemes  on  foot  which 
he  could  forward  more  effectively  by  being  on  the 
ground.  He  had  an  assembly  called  to  meet  at  Perth. 
He  has  been  accused  of  using  many  crooked  methods  to 
secure  such  an  assembly  as  he  could  control.  It  is  espe- 
cially charged  that  he  used  bribery  in  the  delicate  way  of 
paying  the  expenses  of  the  members.  In  this  and  other 
ways  he  spent  some  ;^ 300,000  to  have  the  Scotch  Church 
provided  with  bishops.  The  assembly  at  Perth  ordained 
in  accordance  with  the  king's  wishes,  that  the  Lord's 
Supper  should  be  received  kneeling,  that  it  might  be  ad- 
ministered in  private,  that  baptism  might  also  be  admin- 
istered in  private,  that  children  should  be  confirmed,  and 
that  certain  days,  as  Christmas  and  Easter  should  be  ob- 
served as  holy  days.  These  articles  were  known  as  the 
"  Five   Articles   of   Perth "   and   strenuous    efforts    were 


SCOTLAND  143 

made  to  have  them  recognized  in  the  worship  of  the 
Church.  To  this  end,  Parhament  demanded  it,  the  king 
threatened,  and  the  Court  of  High  Commissions  perse- 
cuted ;  still  the  obstinate  people  continued  to  worship, 
for  the  most  part,  as  they  had  done  before  the  king  "  in- 
dulged his  natural  and  salmon-like  affection  for  his  place 
of  breeding."  But  by  one  means  and  another  James  had 
succeeded  in  putting  quite  an  Episcopal  face  upon  the 
"  sincerest  kirk  in  the  world." 

Charles  I  and  His  Advisers. — In  1625,  James  VI 
died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Charles  I.  He  was 
in  some  respects  an  improvement  on  his  father.  "  The 
face  of  the  court,"  writes  Mrs.  Hutchinson,  "  was  much 
changed,  for  King  Charles  was  temperate,  chaste  and 
serious ;  so  that  the  fools  and  bawds,  mimics  and  cata- 
mities  of  the  former  court,  grew  out  of  fashion ;  and  the 
nobility  and  courtiers,  who  did  not  quite  abandon  their 
debaucheries,  yet  so  reverenced  the  king  as  to  retire  into 
corners  to  practice  them."  This  sounds  well,  and  pre- 
pares us  to  hope  for  good  things  from  the  new  king ; 
but  the  same  writer  feels  constrained  to  add,  "  he  was  a 
prince  that  had  nothing  of  faith  or  truth,  justice  or  gener- 
osity in  him."  A  part  of  the  legacy  which  his  father  left 
him  was  a  book  bearing  the  title,  ''  Basilicon  Doron." 
In  this  book  Charles  was  taught  that  "  the  office  of  a  king 
is  of  a  mixed  kind,  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  and  that  a 
principal  part  of  his  function  consists  in  ruling  the 
Church."  Charles  very  cordially  embraced  this  doctrine ; 
and  associated  with  himself  as  chief  advisers  in  carrying  it 
into  effect,  Charles  Wentworth,  Earl  of  Strafford,  and 
William  Laud,  Bishop  of  London,  and  after  1633,  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  Wentworth  made  it  his  business 
to  make  the  king  independent  of  Parliament,  and  Laud 


144     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

exercised  himself  to  secure  for  the  king  complete  control 
of  the  church. 

The  Service  Book  for  Scotland. — In  reference  to  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  they  took  up  the  work  just  where 
James  left  it  off,  but  they  proceeded  with  much  less  cau- 
tion and  much  greater  rapidity — this  for  the  reason  that 
they  did  not  know  any  better.  Laud  prepared  a  Service 
Book  for  the  use  of  the  Scotch  Church,  making  it  a  little 
more  popish  in  its  cast  than  the  English  prayer  book. 
The  king  appointed  Easter  Sunday  1637  for  its  intro- 
duction. So  far  were  the  Scotch  Presbyterians  from 
showing  gratitude  for  these  royal  attentions,  that  they 
frightened  the  king's  agents,  and  they  let  Easter  pass 
without  trying  to  introduce  the  new  liturgy.  The  king 
then  set  the  23d  of  July,  and  put  his  foot  down  firmly, 
demanding  £hat  there  should  be  no  further  delay.  A 
great  congregation  was  gathered  on  the  appointed  day  in 
St.  Giles  Church,  Edinburgh.  The  surface  was  calm,  but 
volcanic  fires  were  burning  beneath.  The  dean  of  the 
Cathedral  began  to  read,  but  he  had  not  proceeded  far, 
when  Janet  Geddes — a  name  to  be  remembered — rising 
from  the  stool  on  which  she  was  seated  near  the  pulpit, 
picked  up  the  stool  and  hurled  it  at  the  dean's  head, 
with  the  exclamation  :  *'  Pause  loon,  dost  thou  say  mass 
at  my  lug  !  "  Others  followed  the  example  of  the  irate 
dame,  and  for  awhile  missiles  of  all  kinds,  especially  little 
clasp  Bibles,  flew  toward  the  unhappy  dean's  head  thick 
and  fast.  He  took  himself  out  of  the  way  as  quickly  as 
possible.  The  bishop  tried  to  quiet  the  turbulent  crowd, 
but  they  had  no  reverence  even  for  a  successor  of  the 
apostles.  So  far  from  it,  they  shouted, ''  A  Pope,  a  Pope, 
down  with  him  !  "  and  began  to  suit  the  action  to  the 
words,  when  the  bishop  prudently  followed  in  the  foot- 


SCOTLAND  145 

steps  of  the  dean.  The  king  and  his  archbishop  had 
gone  too  far.  The  patience  of  his  people  was  at  length 
exhausted,  and  their  long-restrained  aversion  to  episco- 
pacy vented  itself  with  greater  freedom  than  tenderness. 

Renewing  the   National  Covenant.— When   Charles 
heard  what  had  taken  place  on  the  23d  of  July  in  St. 
Giles  Church,  he  raved  quite  a  good  deal,  but  his  raving 
did  not  mend  matters.     The  Scotts  were  terribly  in  ear- 
nest.    The  privy  council  appointed  representatives  from 
the   different   classes   of  citizens   to   negotiate  with  the 
king.     They  petitioned  him  very  humbly  and  very  ear- 
nestly to  reconsider,  and  not  try  further  to  force  the 
Service  Book  on  them.     He  turned  a  totally  deaf  ear  to 
their   petitions  and  grew  more  determined.     Then  the 
Scotts  did  one  of  the  most  memorable  things  in  all  the 
stirring  history  of  those  times.     They  met  together  in 
great  numbers,  nobles,  gentry,  ministers  and  peasants,  in 
old   Greyfriar's  churchyard,   on  the    ist  day   of  March, 
1638,  and  renewed  the  National  Covenant.     This  coven- 
ant was  drawn  up  in   1580,  and  at  that  time  had  been 
signed  by  King  James,  along  with  his  loyal  subjects.    By 
this  act  they  bound  themselves  to  defend  the  doctrine  and 
discipline  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.     The  king  proved 
utterly  false  to  his  oath,  and  taught  his  son  to  seek  the 
overthrow  of  the  Church  which  he  had  sworn  to  defend. 
It  is  evident  that  while  the  long-suffering  people  had  per- 
mitted the  king  to  mar  in  no  small  measure  their  beloved 
church,  they  had  not  changed  their  minds.     They  were 
at  heart  still  true  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  and  with 
tears  of  joy  they  affixed  their  names  to  the  old  covenant. 
What  was  done  in  Edinburgh  on  that  ist  of  March  was 
soon  known  throughout  the  land,  and  everywhere,  with 
like  demonstrations  of  joy,  the  covenant  was  renewed. 


146     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Church  Restored  to  Pure  Presbyterianism. — The 
king  had  no  force  at  hand  to  compel  his  refractory  sub- 
jects to  obey  his  will,  and  so  he  reluctantly  consented  to 
the  calling  of  a  general  assembly,  and  to  the  meeting  of 
Parliament,  "  for  settling  and  confirming  peace  in  Church 
and  state."  The  assembly  met  at  Glasgow  on  the  2ist  of 
November,  1638.  The  king's  commissioner,  the  Marquis 
of  Hamilton,  was  present  to  act  in  the  king's  name,  and 
to  see  that  the  assembly  took  no  radical  step.  Alexander 
Henderson  was  elected  moderator.  With  courtly  grace, 
but  with  imperturbable  courage,  he  parried  all  the  efforts 
of  the  royal  commissioner  to  control  the  proceedings  of 
the  body.  Under  his  skillful  and  determined  leadership, 
the  assembly  set  to  work  to  wipe  out  every  vestige  of 
Episcopacy,  and  to  restore  the  church  to  the  pure  type 
of  Presbyterianism  into  which  it  had  been  molded  by 
the  hand  of  Andrew  Melville.  They  wrought  faithfully, 
and  at  the  end  of  one  month,  they  had  deposed  all  the 
bishops  in  Scotland,  and  excommunicated  eight  of  them  ; 
they  had  nullified  the  acts  of  all  the  assemblies,  held 
from  1606  to  161 8,  by  which  prelacy  had  been  intro- 
duced, and  declared  all  the  innovations  made  by  them 
illegal ;  they  had  condemned  the  Five  Articles  of  Perth, 
the  canons,  liturgy,  and  book  of  ordination  and  the  High 
Commission.  Having  finished  the  business  of  the  as- 
sembly, Henderson  said  in  dissolving  it :  "  We  have  now 
cast  down  the  walls  of  Jericho.  Let  him  that  rebuildeth 
them  beware  of  the  curse  of  Hiel  the  Bethelite." 

Attempt  at  Coercion. — The  king's  temper  was  not 
sweetened  by  these  proceedings,  and  he  at  once  pre- 
pared for  war.  The  Scots,  hearing  of  this,  did  the 
same.  When  the  king  reached  the  borders  of  Scotland, 
he   found  an  army  confronting  him,  marshaled  under  a 


SCOTLAND  147 

blue  banner,  bearing  the  significant  words,  "  For  Christ's 
Crown  and  Covenant."  He  deemed  discretion  the 
better  part  of  valor,  and  retired  without  risking  a  battle. 
He  called  together  his  Parliament,  the  first  that  had 
met  in  eleven  years,  and  asked  for  money  to  increase  his 
force.  His  Parliament  was  more  concerned  about  the 
king's  bad  behavior  at  home  than  about  the  bad 
behavior  of  the  Scots,  and  consequently  replied  to  the 
king's  request  for  money,  by  asking  a  redress  of  griev- 
ances. On  this  Charles  indignantly  prorogued  Parlia- 
ment, and  called  on  the  English  bishops  for  help.  Hav- 
ing preached  the  divine  right  of  kings  and  the  duty  of 
passive  obedience,  they  put  in  practice  their  doctrine  by 
helping  the  king  to  the  full  limit  of  their  purses.  Hav- 
ing recruited  his  forces  he  marched  North  again.  The 
Scots  did  not  trouble  him  to  cover  the  whole  distance 
but  with  generous  consideration  started  to  meet  him 
half  way.  Charles  reconsidered  and  declined  the  meet- 
ing. Once  more  he  summoned  his  Parliament  to  ask 
their  help.  This  Parliament  met  in  1640,  and  is  known 
as  the  "  Long  Parliament."  Before  it  adjourned  the 
monarchy,  the  monarch,  his  chief  advisers,  Wentworth 
and  Laud,  and  the  Established  Church  of  England  had 
all  been  swept  away. 

The  Civil  War. — Charles  dropped  his  quarrel  with  the 
Scotch,  and  entered  on  a  more  serious  one  with  his 
Parliament.  War  between  them  was  declared  in  1642, 
and  then  both  sides  sought  the  aid  of  the  Scots.  The 
sympathy  of  these  was,  as  a  matter  of  course,  with  the 
Parliament,  for  that  was  the  side,  sanctified  by  the  sacred 
cause  of  liberty.  At  the  same  time  they  were  very 
reluctant  to  lift  the  hand  of  revolt  against  the  dynasty, 
which  they  themselves  had  given  to  England.     They  de- 


148     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

cided,  finally,  to  cast  their  lot  with  the  Parliament 
provided  Parliament  would  unite  with  them  in  a  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  in  which  both  parties  would  bind 
themselves  "  to  endeavor  the  preservation  of  the  Reformed 
religion  in  the  Church  of  Scotland,  in  doctrine,  worship, 
discipline  and  government,  against  our  common  enemies ; 
the  reformation  of  religion  in  the  kingdoms  of  England 
and  Ireland  in  doctrine,  worship,  discipline  and  govern- 
ment, according  to  the  word  of  God,  and  the  example 
of  the  best  Reformed  churches ;  and  shall  endeavor 
to  bring  the  churches  of  God  in  the  three  king- 
doms to  the  nearest  conjunction  and  uniformity  in 
religion.  Confession  of  Faith,  Form  of  Government, 
Directory  of  Worship  and  Catechising ;  that  we  and  our 
posterity  after  us  may,  as  brethren,  hve  in  faith  and  love, 
and  the  Lord  may  delight  to  dwell  in  the  midst  of  us." 
This  covenant  further  bound  them  "  to  endeavor  the 
extirpation  of  all  popery  and  prelacy,"  and  to  attempt 
several  other  things.  But  the  interests  of  religion  were 
placed  by  the  Scotch  in  the  first  place,  and  it  was  clearly 
manifest  that  while  patriotism  was  not  absent,  the  motive 
which  overcame  their  scruples  about  taking  arms  against 
their  king  was  their  concern  for  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 

The  "Westminster  Assembly. — Before  the  actual  be- 
ginning of  hostilities  between  the  Parliament  and  the 
king,  the  Parliament  had  issued  a  call  for  the  assembling 
of  a  body  of  learned  and  godly  divines  to  advise  with 
them  in  reference  to  reforming  the  Church.  The  king 
refused  to  sign  the  call,  but  in  defiance  of  his  will,  the 
Assembly  met  in  Westminster  Abbey  on  the  ist  day  of 
July,  1643.  When  the  treaty  was  concluded  between  the 
Parliament  and  the  Scots,  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant  was  sworn  to  and  signed  on  the  same  day  by 


SCOTLAND  149 

both  the  ParHament  and  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
Divines.  One  result  of  this,  previously  agreed  on,  was 
that  the  Church  of  Scotland  sent  commissioners  to  sit  in 
the  Assembly  at  Westminster.  These  commissioners  ex- 
erted an  influence  over  the  proceedings  of  the  assembly 
altogether  out  of  proportion  to  their  number.  One  rea- 
son for  this  was  the  great  ability  of  the  men.  The  two 
lay  delegates  from  Scotland,  Maitland  and  Johnstone, 
measured  up  to  the  ablest  lay  members  from  the  English 
Parliament;  while  Henderson,  Rutherford  and  Gillespie 
formed  a  triumvirate  that  could  hardly  be  equaled  by 
any  church  of  Christendom.  Another  reason,  and  a 
yet  more  powerful  one,  perhaps,  was  the  fact  that  the 
Scotch  commissioners  knew  exactly  what  they  wanted 
and  why  they  wanted  it.  The  majority  of  the  assembly 
were  favorable  to  Presbyterianism  in  the  abstract,  but 
they  had  been  reared  in  the  Episcopal  Church,  and  knew 
nothing  from  personal  experience  of  the  practical  work- 
ing of  the  Presbyterian  polity.  Thus  the  Scotch  had 
the  advantage  of  contending  for  principles  with  which 
they  had  been  familiar,  all  their  lives,  and  under  the 
operation  of  which  they  had  for  years  been  exercising 
their  ministry.  The  work  of  the  assembly  consisted  in 
framing  a  Confession  of  Faith,  Directory  for  Worship, 
Form  of  Government,  and  the  Larger  and  Shorter 
Catechisms.  From  reasons,  which  it  would  be  out  of 
place  here  to  consider,  England  received  very  little  direct 
benefit  from  the  labors  of  the  Assembly.  On  the  other 
hand,  Scotland  at  once  accepted  all  the  formularies 
which  it  produced,  and  from  that  time  to  the  present,  not 
only  the  Church  of  Scotland,  but  all  the  churches  that 
have  sprung  from  her  in  other  lands,  in  Canada,  in  the 
United    States    of    America,    and    in    Australia,   have 


I50     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

measured  orthodoxy  by  the  Westminster  Confession  of 
Faith  and  have  carried  on  government  and  exercised 
discipline  in  accordance  with  the  poHty  framed  by  that 
famous  assembly. 

Outcome  of  the  War. — When  the  Scots  joined  the 
English  patriots  in  a  war  against  Charles  I,  it  was  not 
with  the  thought  of  overthrowing  the  monarchy,  or  of 
injuring  the  king.  They  merely  meant  to  recover  him 
from  his  evil  ways,  and  secure  from  him  certain  guarantees 
that  he  would  henceforth  respect  the  rights  of  his  sub- 
jects. But  as  the  war  progressed,  Oliver  Cromwell  came 
into  prominence  as  the  one  great  military  genius  of  the 
times ;  and  before  the  revolution  was  over  he  held  all  the 
reins  of  power  in  his  hands.  Cromwell  well  knew  that  if 
Charles  were  restored  to  his  throne,  no  matter  with  what 
guarantees,  there  would  be  no  room  in  England  for  him, 
and  he  very  rightly  judged  that  of  the  two,  England 
could  much  better  spare  Charles.  In  conformity  with 
this  judgment,  he  "  purged "  ParHament  and  had  the 
king  beheaded.  At  this  the  Scotch  were  horrified,  and 
at  once  took  steps  to  bring  the  king's  young  son  over 
from  Holland.  They  managed  to  get  him  safely  landed 
among  them  ;  and  after  making  him  kneel  down  and  con- 
fess the  sins  of  his  father  and  mother,  and  then  sign  the 
National  Covenant,  with  hand  lifted  high  to  heaven  in 
solemn  oath,  they  put  the  crown  on  his  head.  Cromwell 
did  not  wait  for  this  consummation  before  starting  north 
with  his  Psalm-singing  Ironsides  to  see  if  their  matters 
would  stand.  In  two  great  battles  he  annihilated  the 
military  force  of  Scotland.  The  young  king,  leaving  his 
crown  behind  fled  in  disguise  from  the  kingdom,  barely 
escaping  with  his  head.  The  hand  that  had  proved  re- 
sistless in  England  and  Ireland  was  laid  with  such  heavy 


SCOTLAND  151 

weight  on  Scotland  that  "  even  that  stubborn  church,"  to 
quote  the  words  of  Macaulay,  "which  had  held  its  own 
against  so  many  governments,  scarce  dared  to  utter  an 
audible  murmur." 

Oliver   Cromwell   and  the   Church   of    Scotland. — 
Cromwell  has  been  much  censured  for  invading  the  liber- 
ties of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  dispersing  its  synods  and 
breaking  up  its  general  assemblies.     It  should  be  noted, 
however,  that  the  church  had  made  common  cause  with 
Charles   II,  and  the  ministers  had  exerted  themselves  to 
rally   the  nation  to  the  royal  standard.     They  did  this 
when  they  had  good  reason  to  know  that  the  young  king 
was  playing  the  hypocrite  and  perjuring  himself  in  sign- 
ing the  covenant.     Cromwell  wrote  just  after  the  battle 
of  Dunbar :     "  Some  of  the  honestest  in  the  army  among 
the  Scots  did  profess  before  the  fight  that  they  did  not 
beheve  the  king  in  his  declaration  ;  and  it  is  evident  he 
did  sign    it  with  the  greatest  reluctance,  and  so  much 
against  his  heart  as  could  be ;  and  yet  they  venture  their 
lives  for  him  upon  this  account ;  and  publish  to  the  world 
this  '  Declaration '  to  be  believed  as  the  act  of  a  person 
converted,  when  in  their  heart  of  hearts  they  knew  he  ab- 
horred the  doing  of  it,  and  meant  it  not. "     Cromwell's 
judgment  was  so  manifestly  just  in  this  matter  that  we 
censure  him  less  severely  for  selling  some  of  the  captives, 
taken  in  this  battle  of  Dunbar,  as  slaves  to  the  colonists  of 
New  England.     Till  his  death  in  1658,  the  great  Oliver 
ruled  Scotland  with  a  despotism  that  would  brook  no  op- 
position, but  it  was  a  despotism  in  the  interests  of  right- 
eousness.    No    minister    who    devoted    himself  to    his 
proper  work  of  building  up  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  Christ 
was  molested.     No  trace  of  prelacy  was  permitted;  and 
fair-minded  Scotchmen  now  admit  that  while  the  people 


152     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

were  ruled  against  their  will,  they  were  on  the  whole 
ruled  well.  The  means  of  grace  were  furnished  in  abun- 
dance and  in  purity  ;  and  religion  flourished  as  at  no  other 
time  since  the  Reformation. 

Restoration  of  the  Monarchy. — On  the  death  of  Crom- 
well, the  scepter  of  his  power  passed  to  the  hand  of  his 
son  Richard.  That  hand  was  too  feeble  to  wield  it. 
After  a  few  months,  Richard  resigned  the  Protectorate, 
and  retired  to  private  hfe.  The  country  was  now  trem- 
bling on  the  verge  of  anarchy.  The  thoughts  of  the  peo- 
ple turned  to  Charles  II,  who  was  again  in  Holland,  and 
their  hearts  grew  tender  as  they  reflected  on  his  pathetic 
condition  and  the  tragic  fate  of  his  father.  Without  ex- 
acting any  pledges  that  he  would  be  more  considerate  of 
their  rights  than  his  father  had  been,  they  brought  him 
back,  and  seated  him  on  the  throne  with  great  rejoicing. 
Scotland  shared  in  the  joy.  Was  he  not  their  own  kith 
and  kin  ?  Had  he  not  put  his  hand  to  the  National 
Covenant,  thus  engaging  to  defend  the  beloved  kirk? 
Did  he  not  do  this  after  having  been  solemnly  admonished 
not  to  sign  if  he  had  any  scruples  ?  It  may  be  suggested, 
in  passing,  that  he  evidently  had  no  scruples  in  signing 
the  Covenant,  for  he  never  had  any  scruples  about  any- 
thing. He  could  make  an  oath  and  break  it  with  equal 
freedom  from  scruples.  But  the  Scots  had  to  learn 
some  things  yet  about  the  king  for  whom  a  few  years  be- 
fore they  had  poured  out  their  blood  so  freely.  In  the 
meantime  they  joined  in  the  general  rejoicing  over  the  set- 
ting up  again  of  the  throne,  and  the  substitution  of  a 
crowned  Stuart  for  the  uncrowned  Oliver. 

Episcopalians    Uncompromising    and    Resentful. — 
Never  was  joy  more  untimely.     The  utmost  that  can  be 
said  for  the  new  king  is  that  he  was  good-natured,  and  ut- 


SCOTLAND 


153 


terly  godless.  He  might  have  been  wiUing  to  let  the  Scots 
alone  in  the  enjoyment  of  their  Presbyterianism,  if  his 
Episcopal  advisers  had  let  him  alone.  But  with  the  res- 
toration of  the  monarchy  came  the  restoration  of  the  Es- 
tablished Church ;  and  this  meant  the  restoration  of  the 
bishops  who  had  suffered  because  of  their  devotion  to 
Charles  I.  It  hardly  consisted  with  their  idea  of  justice, 
to  say  nothing  of  gratitude,  for  Charles  II  to  treat  with 
equal  consideration  those  who  had  been  responsible  for 
the  revolution  that  resulted  in  his  father's  death,  and 
those  who,  throughout  the  revolution,  had  shared  his 
father's  sufferings,  and  exerted  themselves  to  the  utmost 
to  avert  his  tragic  fate.  They  recognized  that  their  turn 
had  come  now,  and  bishops  though  they  were,  they  were 
also  human  enough  to  enforce  the  lex  talionis.  They  re- 
solved to  restore  the  old  order  to  the  very  last  jot  and 
tittle,  and  constrain  the  Presbyterians  either  to  accept  it, 
or  take  the  consequence  of  expulsion  from  the  Church. 

Effects  of  the  Restoration  on  Scotland. — Whether  or 
not  Charles  II  was  good-natured,  it  cannot  be  questioned 
that  his  conduct  toward  his  loyal  subjects  of  Scotland  was 
about  as  bad  as  it  could  be.  He  was  guilty  of  perjury, 
ingratitude,  treachery,  and  savage  cruelty.  As  a  specimen 
it  may  be  noted  that  the  Duke  of  Argyle,  who  had  placed 
the  crown  on  his  head  nine  years  before,  and  had  then 
put  his  life  in  peril  to  defend  that  crown,  went  down  to 
London  to  pay  his  respects  to  Charles,  was  there  cast  into 
prison,  and  afterwards  was  sent  to  Scotland  and  beheaded. 
Others  who  had  fought  under  the  banner  of  Charles  in 
his  effort  to  overthrow  Cromwell  fared  no  better.  He 
had  learned  nothing  from  the  fate  of  his  father,  but  went 
to  work  to  overthrow  all  the  liberties  that  had  been  en- 
joyed during  the  period  of  the  Protectorate,  and  to  make 


154     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

himself  absolute  in  both  state  and  Church.  Absolutism 
necessitated  the  destruction  of  Presbyterianism  in  Scot- 
land, and  no  time  was  lost  in  entering  on  this  undertak- 
ing. Apart  from  the  king's  own  base  ingratitude  and 
treachery,  the  most  shameful  aspect  of  the  history  is  in 
the  fact  that  the  king  found  willing  agents  to  assist  in 
destroying  the  kirk  among  the  Scots  themselves,  and 
even  among  the  Presbyterians. 

The  Setting  Up  of  Episcopacy.— The  Parliament  met 
on  the  1st  day  of  January,  1661,  and  lent  itself,  with  the 
most  obsequious  servility,  to  the  purpose  of  the  king.  It 
'•  did  rescind  all  the  acts  approving  the  National  Cove- 
nant, the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  and  the  abolish- 
ing of  bishops  in  Scotland  ;  and  they  rescinded  all  acts 
for  Presbyterian  government,  yea,  all  Parliaments  since 
1637,  as  wanting  lawful  authority — only  tolerating  Pres- 
byterian government  during  the  king's  pleasure."  It 
may  be  presumed  that  it  was  not  the  king's  pleasure  to 
tolerate  Presbyterian  government  long.  In  the  following 
September,  only  eight  months  after  the  Parliament  put 
the  power  in  his  hands,  the  king  had  proclamation  made 
that  it  was  his  pleasure  that  the  kirk  be  restored  *•  to  the 
right  government  of  bishops."  Immediately  thereupon 
four  clergymen  were  sent  down  to  London  to  be  ordained 
bishops  and  to  receive  the  sacred  deposit  of  holy  orders 
for  the  propagation  of  a  perennial  line  of  bishops.  On 
their  return  to  Scotland  they  consecrated  ten  bishops  to 
as  many  vacant  sees,  and  we  have  it  from  Episcopal  au- 
thority that  "  the  Apostolic  Succession  has  not  been 
again  interrupted."  The  next  step  was  to  declare  that  all 
preachers  who  had  been  settled  in  their  pastorates  since 
1649,  had  been  settled  unlawfully,  and  now  if  they  would 
retain  their  churches  they  must  receive  them  at  the  hands 


SCOTLAND  155 

of  the  patron  and  the  bishop  of  the  diocese.  When  this 
act  was  enforced,  as  it  was  with  unrelenting  rigor,  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland  had  ceased  to  exist. 

It  is  matter  for  astonishment  that  Charles  II  should 
have  succeeded  in  a  very  little  while  in  doing  what  both 
his  father  and  grandfather  strove  to  do  through  many 
years  and  failed  to  do.  We  must  look  for  an  explanation 
in  two  facts :  (i)  the  people  were  worn  out  with  the  in- 
cessant strife  of  years,  and  were  wanting  in  that  vigor  of 
spirit  which  had  belonged  to  former  days ;  (2)  there  was 
no  Knox,  nor  Melville,  nor  Henderson  to  arouse  them  to 
heroic  resistance.  There  was  at  this  juncture  a  dearth  of 
great  men. 

Persecution. — Let  it  not  be  supposed  that  all  the  peo- 
ple were  submissive.  Far  from  it.  Never  did  the  spirit 
of  inflexible  devotion  to  principle  exhibit  itself  in  more 
lofty  heroism  than  during  this  period.  When  the  preach- 
ers were  given  the  alternative  of  submitting  to  the 
bishops,  or  giving  up  their  churches  and  homes,  four 
hundred  of  them  went  out,  sacrificing  not  only  comfort, 
but  their  only  means  of  livelihood.  Their  people  gener- 
ally were  loyal  to  them,  and  deserted  the  churches  from 
which  they  had  been  expelled.  But  this  could  not  be  al- 
lowed. Soldiers  were  sent  to  enforce  attendance  on  the 
parish  church.  Fines  and  imprisonments  were  the  pen- 
alty for  absence.  The  ejected  preachers  were  forbidden 
to  preach  anywhere,  and  in  case  they  should  disregard 
the  prohibition,  the  people  were  forbidden  to  attend  on 
their  ministry.  It  was  utterly  impossible  for  all  the 
preachers  and  people  to  so  stifle  their  convictions,  and 
repress  the  spirit  of  independence  which  is  so  strong  in 
the  Scotch  character,  as  to  comply  with  these  stringent 
measures.     They  worshiped  together  in  the  woods  and 


156     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

fields,  taking  the  risks  of  discovery  and  punishment. 
Many  were  the  trials  which  they  suffered,  their  condition 
growing  worse  all  the  while  as  the  government  became 
more  thoroughly  organized  in  its  machinery  for  sup- 
pressing dissent. 

The  Pentland  Rising. — Goaded  to  desperation,  a  few 
brave  spirits  came  together  and  resolved  to  try  what  vir- 
tue there  was  in  open  resistance.  A  battle  took  place 
with  the  government  troops  on  the  26th  of  November, 
1 666,  at  RuUion  Green,  on  the  Pentland  Hills.  The  raw 
recruits  were  no  match  for  the  trained  soldiers,  and  suffered 
a  sore  defeat.  This  was  made  the  pretext  for  increasing 
severities.  The  court  of  High  Commission,  near  of  kin  to 
the  Spanish  Inquisition,  in  its  spirit  and  methods,  used 
the  thumbscrew  and  the  boot,  to  extort  confessions,  and 
to  secure  information  against  suspects.  Ten  of  the  pris- 
oners, taken  in  the  battle,  were  executed  on  the  charge  of 
treason.  The  condition  of  the  people  was  now  most  pit- 
iable. They  were  constrained  to  endure  without  a  mur- 
mur the  imposition  of  a  Church  government  and  worship 
which  were  odious  to  them,  and  daily  making  itself  more 
odious  ;  and  also  to  repudiate  vows  which  they  felt  to  be 
binding  on  their  consciences  ;  or  as  the  only  alternative,  to 
suffer  whatever  indignity  and  outrage  a  brutal  soldiery 
chose  to  inflict  on  them.  Many  families  were  ruined 
by  fines ;  and  men,  women  and  even  children  were  the 
victims  of  violence  in  various  forms. 

The  Agents  of  the  Government. — Those  who  were 
most  prominent  in  the  persecution  of  the  Presbyterians, 
or  the  Covenanters,  as  they  were  now  called,  were  native 
Scotchmen,  many  of  them  renegades,  or  apostates  from 
the  faith  which  they  were  persecuting.  The  Duke  of 
Lauderdale^  who  sat  in  the  Westminster  Assembly  as  a 


SCOTLAND  157 

trusted  and  honored  elder  from  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
was    Secretary  of  State  and  specially  active  in  forcing 
Episcopacy  on  his  countrymen.     Perhaps,  however,  the 
palm  for  supereminence  in  evil  was  fairly  won  by  James 
Sharp.     He   had   held   a   pastorate  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church  during  the  time  of  the  commonwealth.     On  the 
eve  of  the  restoration,  being  recognized  as  a  man  of  af- 
fairs, Sharp  was  sent  over  to  Breda,  as  a  representative 
of  the  Presbyterian  interests,  to  "  provide  for  the  protec- 
tion and  preservation  of  the  government  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland,  as  it  is  settled  by  law,  without  violation." 
He  most  shamefully  betrayed  his  trust,  and  came  back  to 
Scotland  to  be  a  docile  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the 
king  and  court  to  overthrow  the  Church  whose  interests 
he  had  been  appointed  to  guard.     He  was  rewarded  for 
his  treachery  by  being  made  Archbishop  of  St.  Andrews. 
He  sold  himself  to  do  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and 
his  name  is  not  likely  to  be  forgotten.     An  attempt  was 
made  on  his  life  which  failed,  and  the  result  was  an  in- 
crease of  his  malignant  zeal.     By  and  by,  another  attempt 
was  made  on  his  life  which  did  not  fail.     A  few  Cove- 
nanters  met  him  on  a  lonely  moor,  and  there  and  then, 
they  constituted  themselves  judge,  jury,  and  executioner, 
and  deliberately  put  him  to  death — not,  as  they  said,  to 
gratify  any  personal  malice,  but  merely  to  vindicate  jus- 
tice. 

Drumclog  and  Bothwell  Bridge.— The  allegiance  of 
many  of  Charles'  poor  persecuted  subjects  gave  way  un- 
der the  prolonged  injustice  and  outrage  to  which  they 
were  subjected.  They  came  to  deny  his  right  to  exercise 
power  over  their  religious  beliefs,  and  to  feel  that  it 
would  be  no  violation  of  their  duty  to  God,  if  they  should 
take  up  arms  in  self-defense.     This  view  led  numbers  to 


158     HISTORY  OF.  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

arm  themselves,  and  to  stand  guard  over  the  congrega- 
tions that  met  for  worship  in  the  open  air.  John  Gra- 
ham, or  Claverhouse,  as  he  is  more  frequently  called,  at 
the  head  of  the  king's  troops,  while  scouring  the  country 
to  break  up  these  •'  Conventicles,"  came  upon  a  body  of 
these  sentinels,  and  ordered  his  soldiers  to  fire  into  them. 
The  fire  was  returned,  and  was  followed  by  a  determined 
charge.  Claverhouse  had  to  save  himself  by  flight,  and 
left  forty  troopers  behind  him  dead  on  the  ground.  Of 
course,  this  act  of  rebelhon  must  be  revenged.  A  large 
force  was  sent  out  from  Edinburgh,  under  the  Duke  of 
Monmouth.  The  Covenanters  marshaled  what  strength 
they  could  for  resistance.  The  two  forces  met  at  Both- 
well  Bridge.  The  battle  went  against  the  Presbyterians, 
four  hundred  were  slain  and  twelve  hundred  were  taken 
prisoners.  On  these,  horrible  cruelties  were  practiced, 
and  fresh  means  of  persecution  devised  against  the  weak- 
ened Covenanters.  So  many  were  the  victims  of  this  in- 
discriminate persecution  that  it  is  known  in  history  as  the 
"  Killing  Time." 

Reign  of  James  II. — In  1685  Charles  II  died,  and 
having  no  offspring,  the  crown  passed  to  his  brother 
James  II.  The  new  king  was  a  Roman  Catholic,  and  it 
might  have  been  supposed  that  it  was  a  matter  of  no 
concern  to  him  whether  his  Scotch  subjects  were  Episco- 
palians or  Presbyterians.  As  they  were  in  revolt  against 
the  Pope,  they  were,  by  that,  debarred  from  heaven,  in 
either  case,  and  why  should  it  matter  with  him  whether 
they  went  to  perdition  with  or  without  bishops  ?  Ob- 
viously it  was  not  a  question  of  the  hereafter  with  James, 
but  a  question  of  the  here  and  now.  He  had  inherited 
the  dictum  of  his  grandfather, "  No  bishop,  no  king,"  and 
in  the  light  of  this  he  was  shaping  his  policy.     It  would 


SCOTLAND  159 

not  make  their  chances  of  heaven  any  brighter  to  impose 
Episcopacy  on  them,  but  it  would  greatly  brighten  his 
prospects  of  ruling  with  an  absolute  and  arbitrary  power. 
So  the  persecution  of  the  Covenanters  went  on,  not  with 
the  same  unremitting  severity,  but  with  the  same  brutal 
ferocity.  Fortunately  for  the  distressed  Covenanters, 
James  very  soon  alienated  all  classes  of  his  Protestant 
subjects.  He  undertook  by  the  sheer  exercise  of  his  own 
royal  will  to  relieve  his  fellow  Catholics  from  the  opera- 
tion of  the  laws  against  dissent.  Very  naturally  the 
whole  country  became  alarmed.  If  the  laws  could  not 
restrain  this  Catholic  king,  there  was  grave  reason  to  fear 
that  the  realm  would  again  be  brought  under  the  rule  of 
the  Pope.  England  and  Scotland,  Episcopalian  and 
Presbyterian  were  at  one  in  their  purpose  that  this  should 
not  be  done ;  and  so  they  joined  in  an  invitation  to 
William  of  Orange,  grandson  of  Charles  I,  the  son-in-law 
of  James,  and  stadtholder  of  Holland,  to  come  over  and 
be  their  king.  James  found  himself  deserted  by  his 
army,  and  was  constrained  to  flee  from  his  kingdom  in 
the  disguise  of  a  servant. 

Policy  of  the  New  King. — William  HI,  as  he  was 
henceforth  known,  was  a  Dutch  Presbyterian.  Very 
naturally  the  Scotch  looked  for  better  times,  nor  were 
they  disappointed.  This  sturdy  Dutchman  did  not,  Hke 
James  I,  forget  his  Presbyterian  raising  when  he  found 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  English  Church.  He  was  the 
only  genuine  Presbyterian  head  that  Church  has  ever 
had,  and  on  the  whole  he  was,  with  the  exception  of 
Queen  Victoria,  the  best  head  it  has  ever  had.  In  respect 
to  religious  tolerance,  he  showed  the  same  largeness  of 
view  that  had  been  characteristic  of  his  countrymen  since 
the  days  of  his  great-grandfather,  William  the  Silent. 


i6o     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

The  Revolution  Settlement. — In  1690  was  formed  the 
Revolution  Settlement,  by  which  the  Presbyterian  Church 
was  again  established  by  law  as  the  national  Church  of 
Scotland.  "  The  first  step  in  this  settlement  was  the 
abolition  of  the  act  of  1661,  which  had  made  the  king 
supreme  over  all  persons  and  in  all  causes  civil  and 
ecclesiastical.  The  next  was  to  restore  the  surviving 
ministers,  about  sixty,  who  had  been  ejected  in  1662. 
The  last  decisive  step  was  to  establish  the  Church  on  the 
basis  of  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  of  the  Presbyterian 
pohty  as  defined  and  secured  by  the  act  of  1592."  It 
seems  that  it  took  the  Stuart  dynasty  just  a  hundred 
years  to  demonstrate  that  the  Scotch  people  could  not  be 
transformed  into  EpiscopaHans,  and  precisely  the  same 
length  of  time  to  render  their  ideas  of  kingcraft  so 
odious  to  the  whole  British  nation  that  they  could  no 
longer  endure  their  rule. 

Character  of  the  Reconstituted  Church.— William 
Carstairs  was  the  king's  chief  adviser  in  Scotch  affairs. 
He  was  educated  in  Holland,  and  had  formed  an  intimate 
relation  with  William  of  Orange  before  they  crossed  to 
England  together.  He  shared  in  the  broad-minded  views 
of  the  king,  and  advised  the  reestablishing  of  presby- 
tery with  certain  checks,  which  would  prevent  a  deeply- 
wronged  and  irritated  people  from  taking  vengeance 
on  their  former  oppressors.  The  appointment  of  preach- 
ers was  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  land-owners  and  the 
elders.  The  conditions  were  made  easy  for  those  already 
holding  churches  under  Episcopal  appointment  to  retain 
their  positions.  Only  a  mild  repentance  was  required, 
and  the  avowed  acceptance  of  the  new  order  of  affairs. 
Many  complied,  and  without  any  loss  to  themselves  were 
transformed  from  Episcopal  to  Presbyterian  preachers. 


SCOTLAND  i6i 

When  it  is  considered  that  thousands  of  the  Covenanters, 
including  the  ablest  and  the  best,  paid  with  their  lives  the 
price  of  their  devotion  to  principle,  and  that  their  place 
was  taken  by  this  element,  whose  principles  sat  so  loosely 
on  them  that  they  could  lay  them  aside  at  the  bidding  of 
policy,  it  becomes  obvious  that  the  rehabilitated  Church 
entered  on  its  new  career  on  no  very  lofty  plain  of  piety. 
''  Its  ministry  consisted,  first,  of  sixty  elderly  men,  the 
survivors  of  the  ejectment  of  1662  ;  second,  of  more  than  a 
hundred  others  who  had  been  ordained  after  that  date,  but 
who  had  in  many  ways  conformed  to  the  prelatic  system  ; 
third,  of  three  preachers,  who  had  been  ministering  among 
the  hill-folk,  or  extreme  Covenanters ;   and  lastly  of  the 
curates  who  were   found  willing  to  submit  to  the  new 
order  of  things."     It  was  not  long  before  it  came  to  be 
manifest  that  these  heterogeneous  elements  had  in  them 
the  seeds  of  future  trouble.     After  the  lapse  of  a  few 
years  two  distinct  parties  emerged,  the  Moderates  and 
the  Evangelicals.     As  the  names  import,  one  party  dis- 
counted experimental  religion,  magnified  scholarship  and 
preached  the  ethical  side  of  Christianity ;  the  other  party 
believed  in  a  religion  which  warms  the  heart  and  inspires 
devotion,  and   they  preached   Christ,  and   the   need  of 
regeneration. 

Formation  of  the  Associate  Presbytery. — In  1702 
Queen  Anne  came  to  the  throne.  She  was  the  last  of 
the  Stuart  dynasty,  and  showed  herself  true  to  its  spirit 
and  history  by  meddling  in  the  affairs  of  the  Scotch 
Church.  In  the  changed  state  of  the  world,  she  could 
not  undertake  anything  so  rash  as  attempting  to  put  it 
again  under  the  control  of  bishops,  but  she  did  it  all  the 
harm  she  could.  In  saying  this  it  is  assumed  that  she 
was  responsible  for  an  act  of  Parliament,  which  was  an 


i62     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

embodiment  of  the  old  spirit  of  hostility  to  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Scotland,  and  in  a  line  with  former 
efforts  to  gain  an  advantage  for  Episcopacy.  In  1707 
the  two  realms  of  England  and  Scotland  were  united 
under  one  Parliament.  In  entering  into  this  union  one 
of  the  guarantees  exacted  by  the  Scots  was  that  the 
Confession  of  Faith  and  Presbyterian  form  of  Church 
government  were  •'  to  continue  without  any  alteration  to 
the  people  of  this  land  in  all  succeeding  generations." 
And  yet  just  five  years  after  the  Union,  the  English 
Parliament,  in  the  face  of  earnest  protest  from  all  parties 
in  the  Church,  imposed  upon  it  one  of  the  greatest  curses 
under  which  it  ever  suffered.  This  was  the  act  restoring 
lay-patronage.  The  new  act  did  not  go  into  effect  at 
once.  The  lay  patrons  for  a  time  respected  the  rights  of 
the  people,  but  at  length,  as  Moderatism  ripened  into  a 
large  measure  of  religious  indifference,  patrons  became 
more  aggressive  and  the  assembly  less  jealous  of  their 
encroachments  upon  religious  liberty.  Matters  reached 
a  crisis  in  1733,  when  Ebenezer  Erskine  was  rebuked  for 
advocating  reform,  and  on  refusing  to  submit  was  sus- 
pended from  the  ministry.  Three  other  ministers  went 
out  with  him,  bearing  the  same  reproach,  and  these  four 
on  the  6th  of  December,  1733,  formed  themselves  into 
the  Associate  Presbytery.  It  is  a  day  to  be  remembered 
with  sadness.  The  noble  Church  of  Scotland,  which  had 
suffered  through  nearly  two  centuries,  resisting  even  unto 
blood,  in  a  heroic  struggle  for  the  right  to  manage  her 
own  affairs,  thrust  out  from  her  bosom  those  of  her  own 
children  who  still  had  the  spirit  to  prolong  the  same 
struggle.  Such  a  shameful  thing  could  never  have  hap- 
pened, had  not  the  fires  of  devotion  been  permitted  to 
burn  low  on  her  altars. 


SCOTLAND  163 

Formation  of  the  Relief  Church. — This  secession  did 
not  put  an  end  to  the  troubles.  The  patrons  continued 
to  present  unacceptable  men  to  the  livings.  The  people 
continued  to  reject  them  and  the  General  Assembly  con- 
tinued to  uphold  the  legal  rights  of  the  patron.  If  a 
presbytery  sided  with  the  people,  the  assembly  over- 
rode the  presbytery.  Soon  another  earnest  soul  could 
endure  the  outrage  no  longer,  and  daring  to  obey  his 
conscience,  he  was  suspended  from  his  sacred  office. 
This  was  Thomas  Gillespie,  and  being  joined  by  Thomas 
Boston,  and  Collier  of  Cohnsburgh,  they  organized  a  pres- 
bytery to  which  they  gave  the  significant  title  of  the 
"  Relief  Church."  They  designed  that  it  should  be  a 
refuge  for  aU  those  who,  like  themselves,  could  no  longer 
bear  "  the  yoke  of  patronage  and  the  tyranny  of  Church 
courts." 

This  second  secession  took  place  in  the  year  1752,  the 
year  which  marked  the  advent  of  Principal  Robertson  as 
the  acknowledged  leader  of  the  General  Assembly.  He 
was  the  consummate  flower  and  fruitage  of  Moderatism, 
calm,  cultured,  eloquent,  ardent  in  the  pursuit  of  liter- 
ature, but  utterly  phlegmatic  in  reference  to  piety.  As 
historian  of  Scotland,  America  and  Charles  V,  he  won 
great  fame,  and  came  into  intimate  relations  with  such 
writers  as  Gibbon  and  Hume.  Drawn  to  them  by  con- 
geniality of  literary  taste,  he  was  not  repelled  by  their 
avowed  hostility  to  Christianity.  During  the  twenty 
years  of  his  ascendancy  over  the  General  Assembly,  the 
unrighteous  laws  concerning  patronage  were  rigidly  en- 
forced, "  now  and  again  with  the  help  of  a  troop  of 
dragoons,"  and  the  complaints  of  the  people  and  the 
scruples  of  presbyteries  were  alike  disregarded.  It  was 
well  for  the  cause  of  Christ  that  Erskine  and  Gillespie 


1 64     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

threw  off  the  yoke,  and  opened  the  way  for  others  to 
escape  from  a  tyranny  so  gaUing  to  every  truly  devout  soul. 

The  Evangelical  Revival With  the  incoming  of  the 

nineteenth  century,  there  came  also  the  dawn  of  a  brighter 
day  for  the  Church  of  Scotland.  Among  the  human 
agents  of  God  chosen  to  usher  in  this  day,  two  names  are 
especially  prominent.  One  of  these  was  Andrew 
Thompson,  who  began  his  ministry  in  Edinburgh  in  1810. 
With  effective  eloquence  he  lifted  into  prominence  the 
great  doctrines  of  grace,  and  then  with  fearless  plainness 
rebuked  the  worldhness,  the  lax  living  that  pervaded  the 
Church.  In  addition  to  his  pulpit  ministry  he  established 
a  church  paper,  The  Christian  Instructor,  which  gave  him 
a  larger  audience,  and  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to 
the  dissemination  of  evangelical  views.  The  other  name 
is  more  illustrious  still.  "In  181 1,  the  tongue  of  Thomas 
Chalmers  was  first  unloosed  to  preach  the  truth."  This 
was  eight  years  after  his  ordination,  but  up  to  181 1,  his 
preaching  had  been  purely  professional,  and  had  by  no 
means  enlisted  as  much  of  his  interest  as  his  mathematical 
and  philosophical  pursuits.  God  used  the  writings  of 
William  Wilberforce  to  awaken  his  conscience,  to  quicken 
and  warm  his  heart.  His  preaching  now  took  on  a  de- 
cidedly evangelical  tone ;  and  it  was  not  long  before  all 
Scotland  knew  that  a  mighty  force  had  entered  into  the 
life  of  the  reviving  Church.  In  adding  Chalmers  to  the 
side  of  the  Evangelicals,  God  had  given  them  a  "  mouth 
and  a  wisdom  which  none  of  their  adversaries  could 
gainsay  or  resist." 

Home  and  Foreign  Missions. — The  tide  of  genuine 
piety  which  had  long  been  ebbing  was  now  fairly  turned, 
and  the  church  was  aroused  to  beneficent  activity  in  many 
directions.     She   began   to    concern    herself    about   the 


SCOTLAND  165 

neglected  classes  for  whom  no  adequate  provision  was 
made  in  the  Established  Church.  A  scheme  of  Church 
extension  was  inaugurated,  which  in  a  few  years  had 
planted  two  hundred  Chapels  of  Ease  throughout  the 
country.  But  the  sympathies  of  the  Church,  throbbing 
now  with  renewed  animation,  could  not  be  restricted 
within  the  narrow  limits  of  Scotland,  nor  indeed  of  Chris- 
tendom. From  the  time  of  his  conversion,  the  heart  of 
Chalmers  had  glowed  with  missionary  fervor.  God,  in 
his  providence,  brought  under  the  power  of  his  voice  a 
student  in  the  University  of  St.  Andrews,  whose  name  is 
honored  to  this  day  as  the  greatest  missionary  that  has 
yet  been  given  to  India,  the  name  of  Alexander  Duff. 
He  was  sent  out  by  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1829,  one 
of  the  best  missionaries  ever  sent  to  the  heathen  world. 
Up  to  that  time  only  voluntary  societies  in  the  Church 
had  carried  on  the  work  of  foreign  missions. 

Origin  of  the  Free  Church. — As  spiritual  life  became 
more  vigorous,  the  chronic  troubles  over  lay  patronage 
reached  an  acute  stage.  Patrons  were  still  exercising 
their  legal  right,  under  the  act  of  Queen  Anne,  to  force 
unacceptable  pastors  on  the  people.  The  assembly  had 
now  come  to  sympathize  with  her  oppressed  children, 
and  in  1834  passed  a  veto  act,  by  which  presbyteries  were 
forbidden  to  induct  the  nominees  of  patrons  against  the 
will  of  the  people.  A  test  case  was  made  and  the  civil 
court  decided  that  the  veto  act  was  unconstitutional,  and 
so  the  parishioners  were  still  at  the  mercy  of  the  unmerci- 
ful patrons.  Two  ways  only  were  open  to  the  General 
Assembly — it  must  either  resist  and  take  the  consequences, 
let  them  be  what  they  might,  or  shamefully  submit  and 
betray  the  sacred  interests  of  God's  people.  It  is  painful 
to  record  that  it  chose  the  latter  way. 


i66     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

The  year  1 842  a  convocation  was  held,  and  a  large 
number  of  ministers  resolved  that  if  no  relief  could  be 
secured,  they  would  withdraw  from  the  establishment. 
It  was  their  purpose,  if  the  government  would  not  agree 
to  protect  and  support  the  Church  without  attempting  to 
subvert  its  liberties,  to  renounce  the  protection  and  sup- 
port of  the  government,  and  cast  themselves  on  the 
providence  of  God  and  the  voluntary  gifts  of  his  people. 
No  relief  came,  and  so  the  next  year,  they  carried  out  their 
purpose.  On  the  i8th  day  of  May,  1843,  four  hundred 
and  seventy  ministers  and  a  large  body  of  sympathizing 
elders  withdrew  from  the  Established  Church,  and  organ- 
ized themselves  into  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

Effects  of  this  Disruption. — Few  churches  have  ever 
suffered  such  a  blow  as  that  inflicted  by  the  Disruption 
of  1843  on  the  Church  of  Scotland.  *'  In  the  large  towns 
her  chief  pulpits  were  vacant ;  of  her  country  parishes 
more  than  one  fourth  were  in  like  condition ;  of  her 
Chapels  of  Ease,  her  latest  joy  and  pride,  nigh  two 
thirds  had  deserted  the  mother  that  bore  them ;  and  her 
very  claim  to  the  fabrics  of  these  last,  which  were  bur- 
dened with  a  debt  of  ^30,000,  had  to  be  vindicated  in 
the  civil  courts.  Abroad  the  outlook  was  equally  dis- 
couraging. Of  all  her  missionaries,  Indian  and  Jewish, 
only  one  remained  steadfast.  Taking  their  converts  and 
the  good  name  of  the  Scottish  Church  along  with  them, 
they  cast  in  their  lot  with  the  Free  Church."  Truly  it 
was  an  appahing  task  to  which  the  Church  must  address 
itself.  Vacant  pulpits  of  commanding  importance  were 
to  be  filled,  and  there  were  no  preachers  to  fill  them ; 
foreign  mission  stations  were  well  equipped  with  build- 
ings, but  there  were  no  missionaries  to  occupy  them ;  the 
home  work  was  prostrated,  and  the  men  through  whose 


SCOTLAND  167 

energy    it    had   so    recently   prospered  were    no   longer 
within  the  Church's  pale. 

Present  Condition  of  the  Church. — It  may  be  said  to 
the  credit  of  the  Church  that  it  wasted  no  time  in  idle 
repining  over  the  great  disaster  which  had  befallen  it; 
but  set  to  work  with  vigor  to  build  up  the  waste  places. 
It  soon  organized  both  its  home  and  foreign  missions, 
and  these  departments  of  the  Church's  work  have  gone 
steadily  forward.  In  the  meantime  efforts  were  put  forth 
to  secure  a  more  satisfactory  adjustment  of  the  relation 
of  Church  and  state.  Some  relief  was  obtained  by  par- 
tial concessions  from  the  government;  and  in  1874  the 
law  of  private  patronage,  which  had  wrought  so  much 
damage,  was  finally  abolished,  since  which  time  the  people 
have  been  permitted  to  choose  their  own  pastors.  For 
those  who  believe  in  the  principle  of  establishment,  the 
condition  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  is  as  nearly  ideal, 
perhaps,  as  its  members  could  reasonably  expect.  Still 
the  government  is  careful  to  keep  the  Church  reminded 
of  its  presence  and  authority,  even  while  it  does  not 
exercise  its  power  oppressively.  A  representative  of  the 
crown  must  be  present  at  every  meeting  of  the  General 
Assembly;  and  it  belongs  to  his  office  to  appoint,  by 
royal  authority,  the  time  and  place  of  the  next  meeting. 
This  may  be  an  innocent  formality,  but  to  those  who 
have  ever  breathed  the  air  of  perfect  religious  liberty, 
such  an  intimation  of  a  right  to  a  voice  in  the  .govern- 
ment of  the  Church,  on  the  part  of  him  who  wears  an 
earthly  crown,  and  solely  in  virtue  of  the  fact  that  he 
wears  an  earthly  crown,  would  be  intolerable. 

In  1866,  the  General  Assembly  passed  an  act  permit- 
ting congregations  to  introduce  instrumental  music  and 
other   innovations   in   the   forms   of  worship  where  this 


1 68     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

could  be  done  without  creating  dissension.  Many  con- 
gregations have  availed  themselves  of  the  permission ; 
and  there  has  become  manifest  in  some  quarters  a  de- 
cided tendency  to  "  enrich  the  worship,"  as  it  is  expressed, 
by  ritualistic  elaborations. 

The  growth  of  the  Church  is  indicated  by  the  fact 
that  its  ministers,  congregations  and  communicants  are 
much  more  numerous  now  than  before  the  disruption. 

The  Divisions  of  Scotch  Presbyterianism.— During 
a  part  of  its   history,  the   Presbyterianism   of  Scotland 
manifested  a  remarkable  propensity  to  split.    The  Scotch- 
men of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  showed 
no    disposition   to   compromise  principle,  nor  did  they 
concern  themselves  much  to  find  means  of  conciliation. 
When,  therefore,  a  clear-cut  issue  was  raised,  involving 
a  matter  of  any  consequence,  the  result  was  likely  to  be 
a  division  of  the  Church  into  two  bodies.     At  the  Revo- 
lution Settlement,  the  followers  of  Richard  Cameron  saw, 
in   the  Erastianism  involved  in  the  Settlement,  a  good 
reason   for  refusing  to  go  into  the  National  Establish- 
ment.    For  some  years  they  had  no  preachers  to  minister 
to   them,  but   they  held   together  as  praying  societies 
until  joined  by  ministers,  at  which  time  they  took  the 
name  of  the  Reformed  Church.     In  1733,  Erskine,  and 
three  other  ministers  saw,  in  the  iniquity  of  lay  patron- 
age, a   sufficient  reason   for  refusing  to   remain   in  the 
church    of  their    fathers,    and    organized   the  Associate 
Presbytery.     In  the  course  of  a  few  years,  the  members 
of  this  presbytery  differed  as  to  the  propriety  of  taking 
certain   oaths  which  were  administered  by  the  leading 
cities  of  Scotland  to  burgesses.     They  divided  into  two 
churches,  Burghers  and  Anti-Burghers.    Toward  the  end 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  each  of  these  divided  into  Old 


SCOTLAND  169 

Light  and  New  Light.  In  1752,  Thomas  Gillespie,  un- 
willing to  take  part  in  the  obtrusion  of  an  unacceptable 
minister  on  a  parish,  disobeyed  the  injunction  of  the 
superior  court,  and  was  cast  out.  He  and  others  formed 
the  Relief  Church.  Thus  for  a  time  there  were  seven 
Presbyterian  churches  in  Scotland,  all  having  sprung 
from  the  same  root,  but  all  standing  apart  in  hostile  atti- 
tude toward  each  other.  These  frequent  and  numerous 
divisions  are  a  testimony  to  the  Scotchman's  strength  of 
will  and  persistence  of  purpose.  He  professes  himself 
''  open  to  conviction,"  but  challenges  "  any  man  on  earth 
to  convict  him." 

The  Unions  of  Scotch  Presbyterianism.— During  the 
nineteenth  century,  the  proverbial  firmness  of  the 
Scotchman  seems  to  have  given  way.  His  nature  soft- 
ened and  his  will  relaxed  under  the  more  benign  in- 
fluences of  these  later  days.  In  1820,  the  two  main 
divisions  of  Erskine's  church  came  together  and  coalesced 
under  the  name  of  the  United  Secession  Church.  In 
1847,  it  was  discovered  that  the  Relief  Church  and  the 
United  Secession  Church  had  grown  to  be  so  much  alike 
that  no  sufficient  reason  existed  for  their  longer  standing 
apart ;  so  they  consolidated  into  one  with  much  enthusi- 
asm, taking  the  name  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland.  Both  the  churches  entering  into  this  union 
were  strong  in  elements  of  intellectual,  moral  and  spiritual 
power.  They  were  conservative  in  doctrine,  evangelical 
in  spirit,  and  aggressive  in  practice.  They  carried  on  a 
vigorous  home  mission  work,  and  after  their  union  they 
easily  took  the  lead  of  all  the  churches  of  Scotland,  or 
of  Christendom  for  that  matter,  w^ith  the  one  exception  of 
the  Moravians,  in  their  devotion  to  the  work  of  world- 
wide evangehsm.    The  last  and  greatest  union  took  place 


lyo     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

in  October,  1900.  Then  the  Free  Church  and  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  formed  a  happy  combination,  and 
are  now  known  as  the  United  Free  Church.  As  all 
these  unions  seem  to  have  been  consummated  without 
the  sacrifice  of  any  vital  principles,  it  is  matter  for 
thanksgiving  to  all  who  wish  well  to  the  future  of  Pres- 
byterianism  in  Scotland. 

The  Free  United  Church. — Notice  has  been  taken  of 
one  of  the  bodies  of  which  this  church  is  composed. 
The  other,  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  had  its  birth, 
as  we  have  seen  in  the  "  Disruption  of  1843."  Those 
who  at  that  time  went  into  the  new  organization  gave 
up  their  churches,  their  manses,  and  their  stipends. 
Their  sacrifice  was  the  same  as  that  of  the  two  thousand 
who  were  ejected  from  the  English  Church  in  1662  by 
the  act  of  uniformity,  and  of  the  four  hundred  who  in 
like  manner  were  ejected  from  the  Church  of  Scotland. 
The  motive  of  the  sacrifice  was  the  same  devotion  to  a 
great  principle.  It  was,  therefore,  not  without  reason 
that  this  body  claimed  to  be  in  true  succession  to  the 
Church  of  Knox,  of  Melville,  and  of  Henderson.  It  was 
standing  by  the  same  principle  for  which  they  fought, 
the  spiritual  independence  of  God's  people.  Their 
splendid  act  of  self-abnegation  excited  the  admiration  of 
the  whole  Christian  world.  It  was  an  eloquent  testimony 
to  the  power  of  vital  godliness.  The  sympathy  which  it 
awakened  started  the  Free  Church  on  a  high  vantage 
ground.  Moreover  it  was  blessed  with  leaders  of  trans- 
cendent ability.  Seldom  has  any  church  been  blessed 
with  such  a  galaxy  of  lustrous  names  as  those  of  Chal- 
mers, Guthrie,  Candlish,  Cunningham,  Welsh  and  Duff. 
Under  their  wise  administration  schemes  of  self-support 
were  quickly  matured  and  put  into  successful  operation. 


SCOTLAND  171 

Whereas  the  prime  need  of  the  National  Church  was 
men,  the  prime  need  of  the  Free  Church  was  money. 
The  noble  enthusiasm  kindled  by  the  righteousness  of 
her  cause  proved  sufficient  to  supply  it.  The  growth  of 
the  church,  both  at  home,  and  abroad  has  been  rapid, 
steady  and  healthful.  This  growth  has  been  confined  to 
no  one  class  of  the  population,  but  has  been  pronounced 
among  the  professional  and  commercial  classes. 

Comparison  of  Free  Church  With  the  Mother 
Church. — The  adherence  of  all  the  missionaries  to  the 
Free  Church,  when  the  disruption  occurred,  threw  a 
great  responsibility  on  the  new  organization.  It  speaks 
volumes  for  the  strength  and  fervor  of  its  evangelical 
hfe  that,  notwithstanding  the  burden  of  self-support 
which  was  suddenly  thrown  upon  it,  the  church  gladly 
assumed  the  responsibility  in  the  foreign  field,  and  with 
generous  liberality  furnished  new  equipment,  and  sped 
the  work  on  its  way.  In  every  department  of  activity, 
the  Free  Church  has  demonstrated  its  wisdom  in  with- 
drawing from  an  establishment  in  which  its  life  and 
energies  were  cramped,  and  its  noblest  aspirations 
thwarted.  Moreover  it  is  evident  that  its  withdrawal  has 
proved  a  great  blessing  to  the  Mother  Church.  Com- 
petition has  stimulated  her  to  more  intense  activity ;  and 
the  example  of  self-sacrificing  liberality  set  before  her  by 
the  Free  Church  has  induced  her  to  put  forth  efforts  of 
enlarged  beneficence.  A  glance  at  the  records  will  show% 
however,  that  the  National  Church  still  has  much  to 
learn  in  the  matter  of  Christian  liberality.  The  Free 
United  Church,  composed  of  bodies  which  for  genera- 
tions, have  been  thrown  on  their  own  resources  for  self- 
support,  shows  the  blessed  result  of  such  training.  Its 
foreign  mission  work  is  represented  by   396  European 


172     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

and  1,387  native  workers;  the  communicants  gathered 
from  among  the  heathen  number  37>94S ;  while  the 
annual  contributions  for  sustaining  the  work  amount  to 
;^65 8,285.  Over  against  this,  the  National  Church  re- 
ports ninety-nine  European  workers,  171  native  workers, 
2,483  communicants,  and  annual  contributions,  aggrega- 
ting ;^243,890.  Looking  at  the  roll  of  communicants  of 
the  two  churches,  and  comparing  their  respective  con- 
tributions, it  is  seen  that  the  National  gives  forty  cents 
per  member,  while  the  Free  United  Church  gives  ^1.35 
per  member.  These  figures  furnish  a  strong  argument 
against  state  establishment, — its  tendency  is  to  make  the 
church  a  parasite,  and  to  dry  up  the  fountain  of  her 
benevolence. 

Fragments  of  Churches.— In  the  various  unions  that 
have  taken  place  from  time  to  time,  nearly  all  the 
Presbyterian  elements  in  Scotland  have  at  length  gotten 
together  in  the  two  great  churches,  to  which  reference  is 
made  above.  But  certain  fragments  were  broken  off  in 
the  process  of  forming  the  unions.  There  is  still  a  Re- 
formed Church,  consisting  of  eight  ministers,  and  1,040 
communicants  ;  there  is  also  the  United  Original  Seces- 
sion Church,  with  twenty-four  ministers  and  3,769  com- 
municants;  and  finally  there  is  a  synod  in  England 
connected  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  consisting  of 
fourteen  ministers  and  3,520  communicants. 


CHAPTER  VII 

IRELAND 

Introduction  of  Presbyterianism. — St.  Patrick  and  the 
church  which  he  planted  in  Ireland  have  been  claimed 
by  Roman  Catholic,  Episcopalian  and  Presbyterian. 
While  believing  that  Patrick  more  resembled  a  Pres- 
byterian bishop  than  any  other  church  dignitary,  yet  we 
will  waive  the  question  as  to  the  character  of  the  church 
which  he  founded  and  date  the  beginning  of  Pres- 
byterianism in  Ireland  from  the  early  years  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  way  was  opened  for  it  by 
the  collapse  of  the  rebellion,  headed  by  the  two  power- 
ful chieftains,  O'Neill,  Earl  of  Tyrone,  and  O'Donnell, 
Earl  of  Tyrconnell.  They  sought  refuge  in  exile  on  the 
continent  and  their  lands  were  forfeited  to  the  crown. 
King  James  opened  the  territory  to  settlers  from  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  on  very  advantageous  conditions.  A 
goodly  number  from  both  nations,  the  majority  from 
Scotland,  speedily  availed  themselves  of  the  opening. 
The  Scotts  settled  mostly  in  the  counties  of  Down  and 
Antrim,  but  in  considerable  numbers  throughout  the 
province  of  Ulster.  They  were  moved  especially  by 
two  impulses,  one  was  to  secure  good  lands  at  cheap 
rates,  and  the  other  was  to  escape  from  unhappy  condi- 
tions at  home.  Their  renegade  king,  James  I,  now  be- 
come an  ardent  Episcopalian,  was  trying  to  force  the 
blessings  of  Episcopacy  on  his  native  land.  Thus  he 
put  an  inducement  in  front,  and  a  goad  behind. 

173 


174     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Ecclesiastical  Conditions  in  Ireland — These  were  pe- 
culiarly favorable  for  the  introduction  of  Presbyterianism. 
The  Primate  of  the  Irish  Church  was  the  saintly-souled 
and   liberally-minded  Usher.     He   had   been   taught  in 
Trinity  College,  Dublin,  by  a  Presbyterian  teacher,  while 
the  provost  of  the  college  was  the  distinguished  Presby- 
terian clergyman,  the  Rev.  Walter  Travers.     The  arch- 
bishop never  outgrew  his  respect  for  men  of  this  faith. 
Echlin,  Bishop  of  Down,  was  also  liberally  inclined,  and  be- 
ing himself  a  native  of  Scotland,  seemed  altogether  willing 
to  see  his  fellow-countrymen  settled  in  his  jurisdiction. 
There  was  sore  need  of  more  preachers  than  the  Episco- 
pal Church  could  furnish,  for  the  new  settlers  were  a  mot- 
ley mixture,  tares  of  a  very  ugly  kind  being  mingled  with 
the  wheat.     A  writer  of  the  seventeenth  century  is  quoted 
as  saying  that,  "  From  Scotland  there  came  many,  and 
from  England  not  a  few,  yet  all  of  them  generally  of  the 
scum  of  both  nations,  who  for  debt,  or  breaking  and  flee- 
ing from  justice,  or  seeking  shelter,  came  hither,  hoping 
to  be  without  fear  of  human  justice,  in  a  land  where  there 
was  nothing,  or  but  little  yet  of  the  fear  of  God.     Thus 
on  all  hands,  atheism  increased  and  disregard  of  God ; 
iniquity  abounded,  contention,  fighting,   murder."     But 
there    was    among   the  Scotts  a  sufficient  number  who 
feared    God    "  to    set    up  preaching  in  all  the  churches 
wherever  they  fixed."     According  to  an  Episcopal  writer 
these  "  brought  with  them  hither  such  a  stock  of  Puritan- 
ism., such  a  contempt  for  bishops,  such  a  neglect  of  the 
public  liturgy,  and  other  divine  offices  of  this  Church  that 
there  is  nothing  less  to  be  found  among  them  than  the 
government   and    forms    of  worship    established    in  the 
Church  of  England."     With  such  parishioners  as  these  to 
contend  with,  some  full  of  devilishness  and  the  rest  full  of 


IRELAND  175 

Puritanism,  the  dignitaries  of  the  Episcopal  Church  were 
ready  to  avail  themselves  of  Presbyterian  preachers  from 
Scotland.  They  therefore  welcomed  Edward  Brice  in 
161 3,  Robert  Cunningham  in  1615,  and  a  httle  later, 
Robert  Blair,  James  Glendinning,  James  Hamilton,  John 
Livingstone,  Josias  Welsh  and  others  of  hke  lofty 
character  and  earnest  spirit.  These  were  permitted 
to  occupy  the  parish  churches,  receive  the  legal  tithes 
for  their  support,  and  to  conduct  worship  and  admin- 
ister discipline  according  to  the  forms  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland ;  and  all  this  without  any  Episcopal  ordination. 
Had  this  liberal  and  sensible  policy  continued  as  a  per- 
manency, what  a  different  history  would  have  been  writ- 
ten of  Protestantism  in  L'eland  ! 

A  Great  RevivaL — God  wrought  with  these  pioneer 
preachers,  and  soon  a  marked  change  began  to  manifest 
itself  in  the  rehgious  condition  of  the  new  settlers.  In 
1625  a  great  revival  commenced  in  the  congregation  to 
which  the  Rev.  James  Glendinning  ministered.  The  Lord's 
choice  of  him  for  the  honor  of  beginning  such  a  work  was 
an  illustration  of  his  using  "  the  weak  things  of  the  world 
to  confound  the  mighty."  He  was  first  settled  at  Car- 
rickfergus.  Robert  Blair,  regarding  this  as  a  very  disas- 
trous misfit,  visited  him  and  advised  him  to  leave  Car- 
rickfergus,  because  of  its  importance,  and  to  retire  to  a 
country  charge,  better  suited  to  his  ability.  It  is  proof  of 
abounding  grace  in  his  heart  that  he  took  this  advice  and 
went  to  Old  Stone.  "  He  was,"  says  Mr.  Blair,  "  a  man 
who  would  never  have  been  chosen  by  a  wise  assembly  of 
ministers,  nor  sent  to  begin  a  reformation  in  this  land,  for 
he  was  little  better  than  distract,  yea,  afterwards  did  actually 
distract.  Yet  this  was  the  Lord's  choice  to  begin  the  ad- 
mirable work  of  God,  which  I  mention,  on  purpose  that 


176     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

all  men  may  see  how  the  glory  is  only  the  Lord's  in  mak- 
ing a  holy  nation  in  this  profane  land ;  and  that  it  was 
not  by  might,  nor  by  power,  nor  by  man's  wisdom,  but 
by  my  spirit,  saith  the  Lord."  He  knew  only  how  to 
wield  the  terrors  of  the  law,  but  he  did  this  with  such 
effect,  under  the  blessing  of  God,  that  a  lewd  and  turbu- 
lent people  were  brought  to  their  knees  in  deep,  and  even 
agonizing  contrition.  Their  spiritual  distress  was  accom- 
panied with  remarkable  physical  manifestations.  <'  I  have 
seen  them  myself,"  writes  the  same  Mr.  Blair,  "  stricken 
and  swoon  with  the  word ;  yea,  a  dozen  in  one  day  car- 
ried out  of  doors  as  dead,  so  marvelous  was  the  power  of 
God,  smiting  their  hearts  for  sin,  condemning  and  kill- 
ing." The  influence  of  this  work  spread  widely  through 
the  country.  The  other  ministers  came  to  the  help  of 
the  eccentric  Glendinning.  Regular  monthly  meetings 
were  established,  attended  by  all  the  ministers  who 
could  reach  them.  By  this  means  method  was  given 
to  their  aggressive  efforts,  and  these  resulted  in  the  con- 
version of  great  numbers,  and  in  the  elevation  of  the 
standard  of  piety  all  over  the  country. 

A  Change  in  the  Attitude  of  the  Bishops.— With  the 
increasing  prosperity  of  their  work,  came  a  change  in  the 
bearing  of  the  Episcopal  clergy  toward  them.  No  doubt 
the  friendliness  of  these  in  the  outset  was  based  on  the  hope 
that  by  kindness  and  courtesy,  they  could  win  the  Presby- 
terians to  the  P2piscopal  Church.  But  what  persecution 
could  not  do  in  Scotland,  kindness  could  not  do  in  Ireland. 
These  Presbyterians  were  o{  the  jus  divimim  stamp,  and 
to  give  up  their  Church  polity  would  involve  the  sacrifice 
of  convictions  as  sacred  as  their  reverence  for  God's  word. 
Possibly  the  changed  attitude  of  the  Episcopal  clergy 
which  occurred  later  was  caused  by  the  growing  influence 


IRELAND  177 

and  importance  of  the  Presbyterian  ministers.    Whatever 
the  cause,  the   change   itself  was  a  very  serious  matter. 
Bishop  Echhn  set  to  work  to  silence  them.     He  tried  one 
plan  after  another,  and  these  proving  only  partially  suc- 
cessful,   the    matter    was    finally   brought   before    King 
Charles.     He  put  it  into  the  hands  of  Wentworth,  whom 
he  had  appointed  Lord  Deputy  of  Ireland.     The  prospect 
of  the  Presbyterians  was  dark  indeed,  when  their  fate  was 
made  dependent  upon  the  good,  or  ill-will  of  this  un- 
scrupulous servant  of  the  crown.     He  and  Archbishop 
Laud  had  committed  themselves  to  an  effort  to  make  the 
king's  power  absolute  in  both  Church  and  state.     From 
this  effort  the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland  were  suffering  at 
this  time,  and  of  course  the  same  policy  could  bring  no 
good  to  the  Presbyterians  of  Ireland.     It  was  not  long 
before  all  the  preachers  were  brought  to  trial  before  the 
bishops  and  silenced.     The  godly  and  generous  Ussher 
had  interposed  as  long  as  his  interposition  could  avail, 
but  he  had  no  power  to  withstand  the  malignant  enemies 
who  had  now  taken  in  hand  to  crush  out  all  who  would 
not   conform    to  the  prayer  book.     Henceforth  he  was 
helpless  to  protect  brethren  whom  he  sincerely  loved,  and 
his  noble  spirit  was  to  find  no  further  expression  in  the 
administrative  pohcy  of  the  Episcopal  Church  in  Ireland. 
An  Effort  to  Take  Refuge  in  America.— The  door  of 
opportunity  being  thus  shut  in  their  faces,  and  strongly 
bolted,  the  Presbyterians  turned  their  eyes  longingly  to 
America.     In  the  year  1636,  they  built  a  little  vessel  of 
one   hundred    and  fifty  tons  burden,  and  named  it  the 
Eagle    Wing,  hoping  that  it  would  bear  them  by  a  swift 
flight  to  their  desired  haven.     On  the  9th  day  of  Sep- 
tember, one  hundred  and  forty  of  them  embarked  in  this 
frail  craft,  and  committed  themselves  to  the  perils  of  the 


178     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

ocean.  Turning  the  prow  Westward,  they  sailed  a  thou- 
sand miles,  in  perpetual  struggle  with  wind  and  wave. 
God  set  this  distance  as  the  limit  of  their  journey.  He 
had  no  thought  of  giving  up  the  work  which  through 
them  he  had  begun,  and  so  he  increased  the  fury  of  the 
storm  against  which  they  had  all  the  while  been  battling, 
shattered  their  little  vessel,  and  forced  it  back  to  the  port 
from  which  it  started.  Disappointed  in  their  hope  of 
reaching  America,  the  silenced  ministers  returned  to 
Scotland. 

The  Black  Oath  and  What  Followed.— Wentworth 
and  the  bishops  did  not  stop  with  shutting  the  mouths  of 
the  preachers.  They  undertook  the  forcible  conversion, 
or  suppression  of  all  the  Presbyterians.  They  imposed 
ruinous  fines  upon  some,  they  locked  others  up  in  prison, 
and  they  tried  to  force  the  ''  Black  Oath  "  on  all.  By 
this  oath  they  were  required  not  only  to  swear  allegiance 
to  the  king,  but  to  swear  that  they  would  never  oppose  any- 
thing which  he  might  command,  and  that  they  would  re- 
nounce and  abjure  all  covenants,  such  as  the  National 
Covenant,  which  at  this  time  was  giving  the  king  and  his 
supporters  so  much  trouble  in  Scotland.  Many  of  the 
staunch  Presbyterians  refused  to  take  the  oath,  preferring 
rather  the  cruel  penalties  which  the  court  of  high  com- 
mission chose  to  inflict.  Soon  their  homes  were  in  ruin, 
and  they  themselves  in  prison,  with  worse  things  in  pros- 
pect. Wentworth  had  made  up  his  mind  and  matured 
his  plans  for  freeing  Ireland  from  the  presence  of  Pres- 
byterians. Apparently  there  was  nothing  to  hinder  his 
executing  his  purpose.  But  the  day  of  retribution  was 
drawing  near.  The  Long  Parliament  met  in  1640,  and 
very  soon  thereafter  it  called  both  Wentworth  and  Laud 
to  account  for  their  high-handed  oppressions.     On  the 


IRELAND  179 

1 2th  day  of  May  in  that  same  year  Wentworth  was  be- 
headed, and  four  years  later  the  same  fate  overtook 
Laud ;  and  to  finish  this  tale  of  retributive  justice,  it 
is  worthy  of  mention  that  their  most  active  accomplice, 
Charles  I  had  the  same  measure  meted  out  to  him  in 
1649. 

The  Irish  Rebellion. — A  far  worse  scourge  awaited 
Ireland,  however,  than  the  tyranny  of  Wentworth.  It  was 
only  about  six  months  after  he  had  paid  the  penalty  of  his 
sins,  when  the  native  Irish  rose  up  to  exterminate  the 
foreigners  who  had  taken  possession  of  lands  which  these 
natives  still  claimed  as  their  own.  This  rebeUion,  or  up- 
rising, was  instigated  by  Catholic  priests,  and  the  decree 
of  extermination  was  issued  against  all  Protestants.  That 
was  a  cruel  age,  and  many  are  the  thrilling  stories  of 
bloody  horrors  which  its  history  has  transmitted  to  us. 
Of  them  all,  not  even  excepting  the  massacre  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew, this  "  Irish  Rebellion  "  stands  out  peerless  in 
the  utter  fiendishness  of  its  atrocities.  The  degraded 
savages,  going  forth  with  the  benediction  from  priestly 
lips  resting  on  their  hearts  to  make  them  insensible  to  ap- 
peals for  pity,  illustrated  as  few  savages  have  ever  illus- 
trated, the  indescribable,  unutterable  measure  of  diabol- 
ical cruelty  of  which  human  nature  is  capable.  They 
dashed  out  the  brains  of  infants  before  the  eyes  of  their 
mothers ;  they  threw  some  into  boiling  pots,  and  others 
into  filthy  ditches.  Merely  to  gratify  their  brutal  in- 
stincts, they  gouged  out  the  eyes,  cut  off  the  ears  and 
hands,  cut  out  the  tongues  and  otherwise  mutilated  the 
bodies  of  their  helpless  victims.  They  buried  some  alive, 
roasted  some  over  slow  fires,  and  devised  every  con- 
ceivable way  to  inflict  shame  and  pain  on  those  for  whom 
they  accounted  death  too  gracious  a  boon.     Their  worst 


i8o     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

deeds  were  of  such  a  nature  that  decency  will  not  permit 
them  to  be  unveiled.  No  discrimination  was  made  be- 
tween Episcopalians  and  Presbyterians,  between  English- 
men and  Scotchmen  ;  their  object  was  to  sweep  all  away. 
Thanks,  however,  to  the  preceding  oppressive  measures  of 
Wentworth  and  the  bishops,  many  Presbyterians  were 
saved  from  this  reign  of  terror  by  being  driven  across  the 
channel  to  their  native  land.  In  this  manner  were  pre- 
served nearly  all  the  preachers,  and  influential  leaders, 
against  whom  especially  the  hostility  of  the  Lord  Deputy 
had  been  directed.  Thus  the  Almighty  made  the  wrath 
of  man  to  praise  him,  using  persecution  to  drive  some  of 
his  children  to  a  place  of  safety.  He  would  not  suffer  them 
to  cross  to  America,  because  he  needed  them  in  Ireland. 
He  would  not  permit  them  at  that  time  to  remain  in  Ire- 
land to  be  butchered,  because  he  would  save  them  till 
the  opportunity  came  for  service. 

Presbyterians  Make  a  New  Beginning. — The  oppor- 
tunity soon  came  for  the  banished  Presbyterians  to  reap- 
pear. Scotland  sent  ten  thousand  men  under  command 
of  General  Monro  to  put  down  the  rebellion.  These 
landed  at  Carrickfergus,  and  with  the  aid  of  a  few  troops 
who  were  already  on  the  ground,  quickly  broke  the  force 
of  the  uprising.  When  the  country  had  become  in  a 
measure  quiet,  the  chaplains,  who  had  crossed  with  the 
Scotch  regiments,  set  about  establishing  ecclesiastical 
order  in  the  army.  They  selected  a  number  of  ruling 
elders  in  each  regiment,  and  formed  them  into  sessions. 
When  four  of  these  courts  had  been  formed,  they  called 
a  meeting  of  their  representatives,  and,  on  June  lO,  1642, 
organized  the  first  presbytery  that  ever  met  on  Irish  soil. 
It  will  be  recalled  that  the  Presbyterian  preachers  who 
first   came  over  to   Ireland  were  permitted  to   exercise 


IRELAND  i8i 

their  ministry  in  the  parishes  of  the  EstabHshed  Church. 
Content  with  this  arrangement,  they  made  no  effort  to 
build  up  organic  Presbyterianism.  Hence  the  formation 
of  the  presbytery  in  1642  marked  a  new,  and  most 
significant  departure.  It  marked  the  beginning  of  great 
things  for  the  permanent  prosperity  of  the  province  of 
Ulster.  It  was  the  laying  of  the  foundation  of  a  structure 
that  is  still  enlarging,  and  whose  splendid  proportions  are 
already  the  glory  of  that  land.  This  first  presbytery  was 
composed  of  five  ministers  and  four  ruhng  elders. 

Changes  Produced  by  the  Revolution  in  England. — 
By  the  time  the  rebellion  had  been  thoroughly  crushed 
out,  and  the  work  of  building  up  the  waste  places  fairly 
inaugurated,  war  had  broken  out  in  England  between 
Charles  I  and  the  Long  Parliament.  One  of  the  first 
things  which  Parliament  did  was  to  abolish  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  and  remove  the  bishops  from  the  House 
of  Lords.  Very  soon  they  proceeded  to  more  radical 
measures,  issuing  a  manifesto  in  which  they  declared  that 
such  a  prelatical  church  government  as  that  which  had 
existed  in  the  realm  was  "  an  evil,  and  justly  offensive 
and  burdensome  to  the  kingdom,  a  great  impediment  to 
reformation,  and  very  prejudicial  to  the  civil  govern- 
ment," and  so  they  resolved  to  have  no  more  of  it.  A 
few  months  thereafter,  they  called  together  the  West- 
minster Assembly  of  Divines  '<  to  consult  as  to  the  set- 
tling such  a  government  in  the  Church  as  may  be  agree- 
able to  God's  word,  and  to  bring  it  into  nearer  agreement 
with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  and  other  Reformed 
churches  abroad."  The  Parliament  invoked  the  aid  of 
the  Scotch  in  their  struggle  with  the  king ;  and  this  gave 
birth  to  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant.  This  cove- 
nant pledged  the  signers  thereof,  among  other  things,  to 


i82     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

stand  for  the  preservation  of  the  Reformed  rehgion  in 
Scotland,  and  to  endeavor  "  the  bringing  of  the  three 
kingdoms  to  the  nearest  conjunction,  and  uniformity  in 
rehgion.  Confession  of  Faith,  Form  of  Church  Govern- 
ment, Directory  of  Worship  and  Catechising."  Of 
course,  this  sweeping  revolution  changed  the  face  of 
things  in  Ireland.  Not  only  were  the  persecutions, 
directed  against  Presbyterians,  stopped,  but  the  church 
which  had  been  guilty  of  them  was  overturned,  and  the 
church  which  had  endured  the  persecutions  was  invited 
to  become  a  helper  in  inaugurating  a  new  order  of  affairs. 
Scotch  ministers  brought  the  Solemn  League  and  Cove- 
nant to  Ireland ;  traversed  the  country ;  called  the  people 
together ;  preached  to  them,  and  urged  them  to  sign  this 
document  as  the  charter  of  their  new-born  liberties. 
Their  appeals  met  with  a  favorable  response,  and  their 
mission  did  much  to  forward  the  interests  of  Presbyte- 
rianism. 

In  1645,  the  Parliament  sent  over  three  governors  to 
the  province  of  Ulster.  These  gave  public  countenance 
and  encouragement  to  the  presbytery,  and  by  their  pres- 
ence and  influence  did  much  to  give  effect  to  its  labors. 
The  parochial  tithes  were  paid  to  the  Presbyterian  min- 
isters, and  they  were  thus  recognized  as  the  representa- 
tives of  the  state  church.  Under  such  favoring  auspices, 
the  growth  of  the  Church  was  very  rapid.  By  the  close 
of  the  year  1647  there  were  thirty  ordained  ministers  per- 
manently settled  in  Ulster,  and  in  addition  to  these  were 
the  chaplains  of  the  Scotch  regiments  which  still  garri- 
soned the  country. 

Loyalty  to  the  King  Brings  Fresh  Troubles. — On 
the  30th  day  of  January,  1649,  Charles  I  was  beheaded. 
To  this  act  of  violence,  the  Presbyterians  in  all   three 


IRELAND  183 

kingdoms  offered  vigorous  resistance.  It  was  necessary 
for  Cromwell  to  expel  a  number  of  them  from  the  Long 
Parliament  before  the  consent  of  that  body  could  be 
secured.  In  Scotland,  the  Presbyterians  invited  Charles 
Stuart  over  from  the  Netherlands,  crowned  him  at  Scone, 
and  took  up  arms  in  his  behalf.  In  Ireland,  the  Presby- 
terians of  Ulster  drew  up  a  "  Representation,"  in  which 
they  condemned  in  no  measured  terms  the  execution  of 
the  king.  They  ordered  this  "  Representation  "  to  be  read 
from  every  pulpit.  It  received  the  honor  of  an  answer, 
by  order  of  the  council  of  state,  and  the  author  of  this 
answer  was  no  less  a  person  than  John  Milton.  He 
drew  upon  his  well-stocked  vocabulary  for  some  of  his 
most  expressive  epithets,  calling  attention  to  the  "  devil- 
ish mahce,  impudence  and  falsehood"  of  the  remon- 
strance sent  up  from  a  "  barbarous  nook  of  Ireland." 
Obviously  such  conduct  on  the  part  of  the  Presbyterians 
was  not  calculated  to  draw  toward  them  the  favor  of  the 
Parliament,  which,  after  being  purged,  had  made  itself 
responsible  for  the  king's  death.  It  was  with  this  Parlia- 
ment, known  as  the  "  Rump  Parliament,"  that  the  Pres- 
byterians now  had  to  deal,  and  during  the  brief  period  of 
its  power,  they  were  not  ''  carried  to  heaven  on  flowery 
beds  of  ease."  An  oath  was  submitted  to  them,  called 
the  "  Engagement,"  by  which  they  were  required  to  "  re- 
nounce the  pretended  title  of  Charles  Stuart,  and  the 
whole  line  of  the  late  King  Charles,  and  every  other  per- 
son, as  a  single  person  pretending  to  the  government." 
It  was  not  the  purpose  of  the  Rump  Parliament  to  have 
any  more  kings  ruling  in  England,  and  empowered  to 
trample  on  the  rights  of  the  people.  The  "  Engage- 
ment "  further  bound  them  to  be  true  and  faithful  to  the 
commonwealth.     The  Presbyterian  preachers  refused  to 


i84     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

take  the  oath,  beheving  as  they  did  in  the  hereditary 
right  of  Charles  Stuart  to  the  throne,  and  preferring 
monarchy,  under  proper  restrictions,  to  any  other  form 
of  government.  The  result  was,  they  had  to  suffer  for 
their  loyalty  to  a  king,  who  in  after  years  demonstrated 
most  conclusively  his  utter  unworthiness  of  such  sacrifices 
as  they  made  in  his  behalf.  They  were  summoned  before 
the  governors ;  forbidden  to  preach ;  soldiers  were  sent 
to  keep  watch  over  them ;  when  they  dared  to  disobey 
orders,  they  were  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison.  Some 
fled  to  the  woods  and  to  other  hiding  places,  and  others 
made  their  way  to  Scotland. 

Conditions  During  Cromweirs  Protectorate. — The 
churches  suffered  greatly  from  these  repressive  measures ; 
but  the  time  of  their  tribulation  was  short.  Oliver 
Cromwell  soon  tired  of  the  Rump  Parhament,  and 
abolished  it.  Having  secured  for  himself  the  title  of 
Lord  Protector,  he  took  the  reins  of  power  in  his  own 
untrammeled  hands.  He  had  reason  to  look  with  grave 
suspicion  on  the  Presbyterians  who  were  still  professing 
loyalty  to  a  kinglet  across  the  channel.  But  conscious 
of  his  mastery,  he  had  the  grace  to  be  magnanimous. 
When  he  found  that  the  Presbyterians  were  willing  to 
submit  quietly  to  the  inevitable,  and  to  give  themselves 
to  preaching  the  gospel,  and  seeking  the  spiritual  welfare 
of  the  people,  he  not  only  put  a  stop  to  all  persecution^ 
but  granted  to  every  one,  who  applied  for  it,  state  aid  to 
the  extent  of  one  hundred  pounds  per  annum.  Under 
such  generous  treatment,  the  Presbyterian  Church  re- 
covered lost  ground,  and  bounded  forward  with  rapid 
strides.  Congregations  multiplied,  parts  of  the  country, 
hitherto  unoccupied,  were  possessed,  the  one  presbytery 


IRELAND  185 

became  five,  and  the  twenty-four  ministers  of  1653  in- 
creased in  a  few  years  to  seventy. 

Restoration  of  Monarchy. — Oliver  Cromwell  died  in 
1658.  His  son  Richard,  who  succeeded  to  his  title,  very 
soon  demonstrated  his  inabihty  to  rule,  and  voluntarily 
gave  up  the  effort.  The  eyes  of  the  nation  turned  to 
Charles  Stuart.  He  was  recalled  to  the  throne  of  his 
father  amidst  a  great  outburst  of  universal  joy.  In  the 
strong  reaction  against  the  military  despotism,  estab- 
lished by  Cromwell,  the  people  hastily  set  up  the  throne, 
without  exacting  from  Charles  II  any  guarantees  for  the 
protection  of  their  liberties.  In  so  short  a  time  they  seem 
to  have  forgotten  the  wrongs  which  they  had  suffered 
from  a  line  of  kings  who  cherished  absurdly  exaggerated 
ideas  of  royal  prerogative.  They  were  not  long  in  dis- 
covering their  folly.  The  restoration  of  monarchy  carried 
with  it  the  restoration  of  Episcopacy,  and  this  brought 
back  to  power  the  dignitaries  of  the  Church,  who  had 
suffered  during  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth,  and 
who  now  had  the  opportunity  to  pay  off  some  old  scores. 
Irish  Presbyterians  were  the  first  to  suffer,  notwithstand- 
ing they  had  been  among  the  first  to  demand  the  resto- 
ration of  the  king.  Prelacy  was  again  set  up  among 
them;  bishops  were  placed  in  all  the  dioceses,  and  these 
at  once  made  it  understood  that  no  one  was  to  preach 
the  gospel  who  had  not  been  consecrated  to  the  holy 
office  by  the  laying  on  of  Episcopal  hands.  Jeremy 
Taylor,  "  the  impersonation  and  special  jewel  of  Angli- 
canism," was  bishop  of  Down  and  Connor.  He  made 
himself  conspicuous  by  his  intolerant  spirit.  He  silenced 
Presbyterian  preachers  at  a  rapid  rate,  declaring,  in  one 
day,  thirty-six  of  their  pulpits  vacant  and  sending  curates 
to   take  their  place.     Other  prelates   followed  Taylor's 


1 86     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

example.  They  not  only  silenced,  but  deposed  Presby- 
terian ministers.  The  only  price  at  which  these  could 
purchase  the  dearly-prized  privilege  of  preaching  the 
gospel  was  to  accept  Episcopal  ordination,  and  conform 
their  worship  to  the  prayer  book.  To  their  credit,  be  it 
said,  only  seven,  out  of  sixty-eight,  paid  the  price.  The 
other  sixty-one  sorrowfully  bade  their  devoted  flocks 
farewell,  gave  up  their  manses,  and  went  forth  with  their 
dependent  families  to  endure  poverty,  and  to  trust  God 
for  their  daily  bread.  The  cruel  blow  fell  not  only  on 
the  preachers,  but  also  on  the  people  whom  they  had 
served.  Says  Mr.  Froude  :  "  To  insist  that  none  should 
officiate,  who  had  not  been  ordained  by  a  bishop,  was  to 
deprive  two  thirds  of  the  Protestant  inhabitants  of  the 
only  religious  ministrations  which  they  would  accept,  and 
to  force  on  them  the  alternative  of  exile  or  submission  to 
a  ritual  which  they  abhorred  as  much  as  popery,  while  to 
enhance  the  absurdity,  there  were  probably  not  a  hun- 
dred episcopally- ordained  clergy  in  the  whole  land.  Yet 
this  is  what  the  bishops  deliberately  thought  it  wise  to 
do.  Every  clergyman  had  to  subscribe  a  declaration  that 
a  subject,  under  no  pretense,  might  bear  arms  against  the 
king,  and  that  the  oath  to  the  League  and  Covenant  was 
illegal  and  impious.  Non-conformists  became  at  once  the 
objects  of  an  unrelenting  persecution." 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  while  a  similar  act  of  uniform- 
ity was  passed  in  England,  and  similar  persecutions  were 
visited  on  the  non-conformists  of  that  kingdom,  the  blow 
did  not  fall  till  a  year  later.  It  was  given  to  the  Presby- 
terians of  Ireland  to  take  the  lead  in  suffering  afflictions 
for  conscience'  sake.  Well  did  they  perform  the  part 
which  providence  assigned  them.  They  walked  with 
steady  tread  through  the  fires  that  were  kindled  upon 


IRELAND  187 

them,  and  illustrated  in  the  face  of  the  world  how  grand 
a  thing  it  is  to  sacrifice  self  for  God  and  his  truth.  By 
their  loyal  adherence  to  principle,  and  their  heroic  en- 
durance of  the  tragic  consequences,  they  saved  Presby- 
terianism  to  Ireland,  and  no  one  can  easily  estimate  what 
that  meant  for  distant  lands,  and  for  generations  yet  un- 
born. 

A  Period  of  Change  for  the  Better. — In  course  of  time, 
the  loyalty  of  Presbyterians  to  law  and  order  vindicated 
itself,  and  the  government  ceased  to  treat  them  as  crimi- 
nals. The  deposed  preachers  gradually  ventured  to  ren- 
der service  to  their  bereaved  people.  For  awhile  they 
moved  among  them  privately,  ministering  to  them  in 
their  homes.  Occasionally  they  met  them  in  barns,  or 
in  the  open  country  under  cover  of  darkness,  and 
preached  to  them,  and  celebrated  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper.  The  officers  of  the  law  showing  less  and 
less  disposition  to  molest  them,  they  began  about  the 
year  1668  to  build  rude  houses  of  worship.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  preachers  was  enhanced  by  the  fortitude 
with  which  they  had  borne  their  heavy  trials.  Their  old 
congregations  gathered  lovingly  around  them,  and  their 
labors  were  blessed  to  the  rapid  upbuilding  of  the  Church. 
Sessions  and  presbyteries  were  reorganized,  discipline 
was  enforced,  and  candidates  for  the  ministry  were  li- 
censed and  sent  forth.  The  Church's  safety  was  still  de- 
pendent, not  upon  legal  securities,  but  upon  the  personal 
good  will  of  the  magistrates,  yet  during  several  years  it 
enjoyed  such  measure  of  liberty  as  enabled  the  ministers 
to  prosecute  their  work  with  diligence,  and  with  most 
gratifying  success. 

New  Troubles,  Arising  from  Developments  in  Scot- 
land.—The  relations  between  Ireland  and  Scotland  were 


i88     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

so  very  close  that  the  resistance  of  the  cruelly-oppressed 
Covenanters  of  the  latter  country  to  the  will  of  the  king 
awakened  feelings  against  the  Presbyterians  of  Ireland. 
Especially  the  affair  at  Bothwell  Bridge,  where  the  Cove- 
nanters ventured  to  meet  armed  force  with  armed  force, 
had  an  unhappy  effect  on  the  Irish  Church.  Ormond, 
the  lord-lieutenant,  was  alarmed  at  the  news  of  the  in- 
surrection in  Scotland,  and  took  measures  to  stop  all 
communication  between  the  two  countries.  He  pressed 
the  oath  of  supremacy  with  renewed  rigor,  and  used 
military  force  to  see  that  his  commands  were  obeyed. 
Presbyterian  preachers  were  again  introduced  to  the 
prisons,  their  church  doors  closed,  and  preachers  and 
people  were  made  to  suffer  in  various  ways  for  recusancy. 
Many  now  began  to  think  of  America  afresh  as  an 
asylum,  and  perhaps  no  small  number  would  have  found 
means  to  cross  the  Atlantic,  had  not  a  change  occurred 
which  held  out  some  hope  of  relief. 

Policy  of  James  II  Brings  Temporary  Relief. — 
Charles  II  died  in  1685,  and  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  by  his  brother,  James  11.  The  new  king  was  a 
Roman  Catholic,  and  it  might  have  been  presumed  that 
he  would  be  at  no  pains  to  enforce  uniformity  to  Episco- 
pacy. The  result  justified  such  a  presumption.  It  soon 
became  evident  that  his  prime  aim  in  respect  to  Ireland 
was  to  relieve  papists  of  their  disabilities,  and  to  make 
the  Church  of  Rome  once  again  supreme.  Of  all  con- 
ceivable evils  this  would  have  been  about  the  worst.  It 
meant  not  merely  subjecting  Protestants  to  Catholics — 
this  would  have  been  bad  enough,  considering  the  old 
grudges  that  would  have  sought  gratification — but  it 
meant  putting  intelligent  and  cultured  Englishmen  under 
the  power  of  ignorant  and  savage  Celts.     Terrible  as  w^s 


IRELAND  189 

the  prospect,  James  sought,  with  a  blind  persistency  of 
purpose,  to  bring  it  to  pass.  He  appointed  his  brother- 
in-law.  Earl  of  Clarendon,  lord-lieutenant  in  place  of 
Ormond.  He  could  count  on  Clarendon's  abject  sub- 
serviency in  carrying  out  his  ill-starred  purpose.  But 
the  king's  fatuity  was  yet  more  clearly  manifest  in  his 
appointing  the  Earl  of  Tyrconnel  to  the  command  of 
the  army  in  Ireland.  This  most  unscrupulous  dare-devil 
proceeded  to  remodel  the  army  by  supplanting  Protesant 
officers  with  Catholic,  and  by  filhng  the  ranks  with  papists. 
Civil  offices  were  in  like  manner  vacated  that  they  might 
be  filled  with  Catholics.  Matters  went  from  bad  to  worse 
until  1687  when  James  put  the  crown  of  folly  on  all  his 
past  administration  by  withdrawing  Clarendon  and  put- 
ting Tyrconnel  in  the  office  of  lord-lieutenant.  With  a 
free  hand  this  rabid  Romanist  hurried  on  the  work  of 
revolutionizing  all  departments  of  the  government.  Not 
only  were  Protestants  removed  from  all  positions  of 
power,  but  they  were  forbidden  to  carry  arms.  So  great 
became  the  alarm  that  numbers  of  the  English  settlers 
hastily  took  steps  to  secure  their  property  as  best  they 
could,  and  emigrated  to  England. 

During  all  this  period,  the  Presbyterians  were  unmo- 
lested. They,  along  with  Roman  Catholics,  belonged  to 
the  class  of  dissent,  and  James  could  not  relieve  the 
Roman  Catholics  except  by  proclamations  of  indulgence 
which  included  all  the  nonconformists.  Thus  while  the 
Presbyterians  were  not  favored  by  promotions  to  posi- 
tions in  the  army,  or  in  the  civil  government,  as  were  the 
papists,  they  enjoyed  liberty  of  worship,  and  they  used 
their  liberty  to  advance  the  interests  of  Christ's  kingdom. 
They  were  far,  however,  from  approving  the  high-handed 
exercise  of  arbitrary  power  by  which  James  set  aside  the 


I90     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

laws  of  Parliament.  They  declined  to  join  in  a  letter  of 
thanksgiving,  which  was  sent  to  the  king,  commending 
him  for  his  leniency  toward  those  who  had  hitherto  suf- 
fered under  the  penalty  of  oppressive  laws.  They  knew 
the  leniency  was  not  born  of  any  good  will  to  them ; 
and  further  they  could  not  fail  to  know  that  if  James 
succeeded  in  making  the  Roman  Catholics  supreme,  the 
evils  under  which  they  had  suffered  for  dissenting  from 
Episcopacy  would  be  light  in  comparison  with  the  evils 
which  their  new  masters  would  inflict. 

A  Threatened  Massacre  Gives  Rise  to  the  Siege  of 

Derry In   December,  1688,  an  anonymous  letter  was 

picked  up  in  a  little  village  near  Belfast,  addressed  to  the 
Earl  of  Mount-Alexander.  The  object  of  the  letter  was 
to  warn  him  of  a  general  massacre  of  the  Protestants, 
planned  for  the  9th  of  that  month.  Copies  of  this  let- 
ter were  scattered  abroad,  and  produced  serious  alarm 
among  the  Protestants.  They  recalled  the  blood-curdling 
stories  of  massacres  of  1641,  and  knew  that  precisely  the 
same  deep-seated  hatred  that  gave  rise  to  those  still  ex- 
isted, and  that  the  same  element  of  the  population  that 
perpetrated  those  massacres  were  as  capable  of  such 
atrocities  now  as  they  had  been  then.  Furthermore, 
Tyrconnel,  who  was  supreme  in  power,  was,  with  good 
reason,  believed  to  have  a  heart  black  enough  for  any 
crime.  There  was  thus  abundant  cause  for  alarm.  Cer- 
tain movement  of  troops  tended  to  confirm  the  announce- 
ment contained  in  the  letter.  Detachments  under  Cath- 
olic commanders  were  sent  to  garrison  some  of  the 
principal  towns.  In  Enniskillen  and  Derry,  news  of 
their  approach  awakened  the  spirit  of  resistance.  The 
Protestant  inhabitants  in  these  two  cities  determined  to 
withstand,  at  all  hazard,  the  purpose  of  the  governor. 


IRELAND  191 

The  valor  displayed  in  carrying  out  their  determination 
furnishes   one   of  the   most  thrilling  stories   in   the  an- 
nals of  war.     Especially  has  the  siege  of  Derry  become 
famous.     It  so  happened  that  the  very  day  that  the  letter, 
warning  of  the  intended  massacre,  reached  the  city,  news 
was  also  brought  that  two  regiments  of  Catholic  troops, 
under  Lord  Antrim,  were  on  their  way  to  take  possession 
of  the  city's  garrison.     Mayor  Tomkins  was  much  dis- 
turbed, and  asked  counsel  of  the  Rev.  James  Gordon,  a 
Presbyterian   minister.     His    prompt   advice  was  "shut 
the  gate,  and  keep  them  out."     For  further  counsel,  the 
mayor  sought  the  advice  of  the  Episcopal  bishop,  Ezekiel 
Hopkins.     Of  course,  the  bishop  counseled  in  harmony 
with  the  doctrine  of  nonresistance.     King  James  was  the 
Lord's  anointed,  and  his  troops  must  not  be  molested. 
Antrim's    men  were    now  at  the  gate.     Eight   or   nine 
young  apprentices  of  the  city,  inspired,  as  it  would  seem, 
by  Gordon's  brave  words,  ran  and  shut  the  gate  and 
locked  it.    The  citizens  determined  to  stand  by  the  action 
of  the  young  men.     This  led  to  the  siege  of  Derry, 
which  began  on  the  i8th  day  of  April,  1689,  and  lasted 
one  hundred  and  five  days.     The  resources  of  the  city, 
in    food   and   ammunition,  were  soon   exhausted.     The 
famine  increased  until  "  rats  were  a  dainty,  and  hides  and 
shoe  leather  were  the  ordinary  fare."     Fever  and  cholera 
added  their  horrors   to   those   of  famine.     But  no   one 
counseled  surrender;    indeed,  no  one  was  permitted  to 
use  the  word.     The  Roman  Catholic  general,  who  w^as 
conducting  the  siege,  brought  in  all  the  Protestant  fami- 
lies from  a  distance  of  ten  miles,  old  men,  women  and 
children,  and  herded  them  together  under  the  wall ;  then 
issued  a  proclamation  to  the  city,  saying  that  he  would 
keep  them   there  till   they  starved   if  the   city  did   not 


192     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

capitulate.  This  barbarous  device  signally  failed  of  its 
purpose.  These  starving  ones,  herded  on  the  outside  of 
the  walls,  called  to  the  sentinels  at  their  post,  and  ex- 
horted them  to  remain  firm.  But  the  besieged  had  no 
idea  of  remaining  passive  while  their  helpless  kinsmen 
were  slowly  enduring  the  pangs  of  starvation.  They 
erected  a  gallows  on  the  highest  bastion,  and  proclaimed 
to  the  besieging  army  their  purpose  to  hang  all  the 
prisoners  in  their  possession  if  the  suffering  people  were 
not  permitted  to  return  to  their  homes.  This  had  its 
designed  effect.  Without  going  further  into  the  details 
of  this  famous  defense,  suffice  it  to  say  that  after  the 
inhabitants  of  Derry  had  exhibited  the  very  utmost  of 
fortitude  that  is  possible  to  man,  relief  reached  them, 
and  the  siege  was  raised. 

A  Change  of  Dynasty  in  England. — The  very  month 
in  which  the  anonymous  letter,  which  alarmed  the  Prot- 
estants, was  picked  up  in  the  streets  of  the  Irish  village, 
a  bloodless  revolution  took  place  in  England  which 
seated  William  and  Mary  on  the  throne  and  sent  James 
II  into  exile.  The  cause  of  this  revolution  was  the  uni- 
versal discontent  among  all  the  Protestants  of  the  three 
kingdoms.  To  the  usual  vices  of  the  Stuarts,  James  added 
certain  vices  which  grew  out  of  his  devotion  to  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church.  By  his  folly,  his  cruelty,  his 
treachery,  and  his  utter  disregard  of  all  legal  restraints 
placed  on  the  royal  prerogative,  he  demonstrated  his  utter 
unfitness  to  rule  over  subjects  who  had  any  spark  of  true 
manhood  in  them.  In  the  short  space  of  three  years,  he 
exhausted  their  patience,  and  they  invited  his  son-in-law 
and  daughter  over  from  Holland  to  take  his  place.  He 
escaped  to  France,  and  in  March  of  the  next  year,  crossed 
over  to  Ireland,  hoping  by  the  aid  of  the  Roman  Catho- 


IRELAND  193 

lies  and  the  Irish  Episcopalians,  both  of  which  parties 
were  still  loyal  to  him,  to  regain  his  throne.  The  Pres- 
byterians of  Ireland  had  gladly  hailed  the  accession  of 
William  and  Mary ;  and  while  they  were  in  a  feeble  mi- 
nority, by  heroic  endurance,  as  in  the  sieges  of  Derry 
and  Enniskillen,  they  managed  to  keep  the  forces  of 
James  busy  until  William  could  first  send  troops,  and  then 
afterwards  come  in  person,  to  their  relief.  Several  indeci- 
sive battles  were  fought;  and  finally  on  the  1st  day  of 
July,  1690,  in  the  famous  battle  of  the  Boyne,  the  army 
of  James  was  completely  routed,  and  his  power  perma- 
nently overthrown. 

Lights  and  Shadows  During  the  Reign  of  William 
and  Mary.— William  III  was  a  Presbyterian,  having  been 
reared  in  the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland.     He  brought 
to  the  throne  of  England  the  broad  and  tolerant  prin- 
ciples which  were  characteristic  of  his  countrymen.     In 
accepting  the  crown  of  England,  William  was  bound  to 
accept  the  headship  of  the  Established  Church,  and  to 
rule  according  to  the  laws  previously  enacted.     It  was  his 
desire  to  have  the  laws  so  modified,  and  the  Church  so 
broadened  as  to  make  room  in  it  for  the  Presbyterians ; 
but  the  narrow  bigotry  of  the  Episcopal  hierarchy  pre- 
vented  this  ;    and  throughout  his  reign  William   found 
himself  handicapped  in  his  efforts  to  secure  religious  free- 
dom for  dissenters.     In  Scotland,  where  the  Parliament 
and  the  majority  of  the  people  were  Presbyterians,  there 
was  no  difficulty.     They  were  given  a  controlling  voice 
in   arranging  their  own  affairs,  and  by  the  Revolution 
settlement,  all  the  laws,  framed  for  the  purpose  of  forcing 
Episcopacy  upon  that  land,  were  abrogated,  and  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  was  established  as  the  National  Church. 
There  it  was  the  Episcopalians  who  suffered,  and  it  is  not 


194     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

to  be  denied  that  some  of  the  preachers  of  that  Church, 
who  had  been  foisted  on  an  unwiihng  people  in  the  pre- 
vious reigns,  were  handled  very  roughly.  But  condi- 
tions in  Ireland  were  just  the  reverse  of  those  in  Scotland. 
Here  the  local  government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Epis- 
copalians, and  their  church  continued  to  be,  what  it  had 
been  since  the  days  of  Elizabeth,  the  lawful  establish- 
ment. The  Presbyterians  had  no  legal  standing,  and 
while  William  did  what  he  could  for  their  protection, 
they  suffered  not  a  little  annoyance,  and  at  times  severe 
persecution  from  those  who  held  the  reins  of  power. 
The  king  knew  of  their  staunch  loyalty,  and  what  that 
loyalty  had  cost  them  in  holding  Derry  and  Enniskillen ; 
also  what  service  they  had  rendered  in  helping  to  win  the 
victories  that  saved  Ireland  from  the  triumph  of  the 
papists,  and  the  three  kingdoms  from  the  further  iniqui- 
ties and  oppressions  of  James  II.  He  showed  his  appre- 
ciation by  hindering,  as  far  as  possible,  the  execution  of 
unrighteous  laws  and  also  in  a  very  especial  manner 
by  granting  them  an  endowment  of  twelve  hundred 
pounds  per  annum.  Strange  to  relate,  this  special  mark 
of  favor  had  been  shown  them  previously  by  Charles  II. 
In  a  fit  of  good-nature,  he  had  commanded  this  same 
amount  to  be  paid  them,  but  at  the  time,  the  revenues  of 
the  kingdom  had  run  so  low  that  only  half  the  amount 
was  actually  paid.  The  payment  of  this  had  been  irreg- 
ular, and  for  quite  a  while  before  William  renewed  the 
grant,  payment  had  ceased  altogether.  This  Rcgiiim 
Domim  was  expressly  designed  by  William  HI,  as  a  testi- 
mony to  ♦'  the  peaceable  and  dutiful  temper  of  our  said 
subjects,  and  their  constant  labor  to  unite  the  hearts  of 
others  in  zeal  and  loyalty  toward  us,"  and  because 
*•  we  are  sensible  of  the  losses  they  have  sustained."     With 


IRELAND  195 

such  protection  and  aid  as  William  was  able  to  afford  the 
Church,  it  prospered  amazingly.  By  the  time  of  his  death, 
the  presbyteries  had  increased  to  nine,  these  were  sub- 
ordinated to  three  synods,  and  the  organization  of  the 
Church  was  completed  by  a  General  Synod. 

Return  of  Troubles  in  the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne.— 
William  III  died  in  1702.  His  death  opened  the  way  to 
the  throne  for  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  in  the  person  of 
Queen  Anne.  From  the  accession  of  James  I  in  1603, 
the  reign  of  the  Stuart  dynasty  had  been  one  perpetual 
calamity  to  Presbyterians  in  all  the  three  kingdoms.  It 
lavished  its  love  and  its  favor  on  Episcopacy,  because  it 
had  the  making  of  the  bishops,  and  these,  with  a  shame- 
less truculency,  lent  themselves  to  the  exaltation  of  royal 
prerogative.  They  taught  that  the  king  could  do  no 
wrong,  and  that  resistance  to  the  will  of  the  king,  under 
any  and  all  circumstances,  was  a  sin  against  God. 

Queen  Anne  was  no  sooner  seated  on  the  throne  than 
the  condition  of  the  Presbyterians  of  Ireland  changed  for 
the  worse.  At  the  request  of  the  Bishop  of  Derry  that 
the  Regiitm  Donum  should  be  stopped,  or  if  continued, 
so  distributed  as  to  cause  "  division  and  jealousy  "  among 
the  Presbyterians,  the  control  of  it  was  put  in  the  hands 
of  the  lord-lieutenant,  with  power  to  give,  or  withhold,  as 
he  should  see  fit.  Before  the  end  of  the  reign  it  was 
entirely  withheld. 

Iniquity  of  the  Test  Act.— In  1704,  the  Test  Act, 
which  for  some  years  had  been  a  blight  on  dissent  in 
England,  was  introduced  into  Ireland.  By  this  act,  every 
one  was  required  to  partake  of  the  sacrament  in  the 
Established  Church  as  a  condition  of  holding  a  civil 
office,  or  of  serving  in  the  militia.  The  bishops  may 
have  hoped  by  this  means  to  increase  the  roll  of  their 


196     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

communicants ;  but,  if  so,  they  were  doomed  to  disap- 
pointment. Hard  as  it  was  for  able  and  loyal  men  to  be 
excluded  from  all  share  in  the  government  of  the  country 
which  their  valor  had  saved,  the  Presbyterians  preferred 
exclusion  from  office  to  inclusion  in  a  church  which  had 
done  all  that  it  well  could  do  to  earn  their  hatred.  Of 
the  twelve  aldermen  in  Derry,  ten  lost  their  office ;  four- 
teen of  the  twenty-four  burgesses,  being  Presbyterians, 
were  expelled.  In  Belfast  nine  out  of  thirteen  burgesses, 
by  refusing  to  comply  with  the  conditions,  forfeited  their 
seats.  These  samples  will  serve  to  show  the  effect  of  the 
Act.  In  the  north  of  Ireland,  the  great  majority  of 
the  Protestant  population  were  Presbyterians.  In  some 
regions  they  were  fifty  to  one.  While  the  parish 
churches  were  almost  empty,  "  the  Presbyterian  meet- 
ings were  crowded  with  thousands,  covering  all  the 
fields."  This  is  the  testimony  of  a  dignitary  of  the 
Episcopal  Church.  Where  there  was  such  disparity  in 
numbers,  it  was  a  great  aggravation  of  their  grievance 
that  they  must  resign  the  whole  administration  of  civil 
affairs  into  the  hands  of  a  hostile  minority. 

Contribution  of  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  to 
America. — We  have  seen  that  as  early  as  1636,  the  per- 
secuted Presbyterians  of  Ireland  tried  to  escape  to 
America.  God's  providence  brought  their  effort  to 
naught.  "  The  fullness  of  time  "  had  not  yet  come.  But 
colonies  were  growing  up  in  the  western  world,  and 
along  with  this  growth  was  a  growing  need  of  the 
material  that  God  was  preparing  in  Ireland.  In  168 1, 
Francis  Makemie  was  licensed  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Lagan.  In  response  to  a  call  for  a  preacher,  made  by 
Colonel  Stephens  of  the  Eastern  Shore  of  Maryland  in 
behalf  of  that  colony,  the  presbytery  ordained  Makemie, 


IRELAND  197 

sine  tituloy  and  sent  him  to  America.  That  was  the 
beginning  of  a  stream  that  trickled  until  the  early  years 
of  the  next  century,  when  it  began  to  flow  in  a  larger 
current,  and  continued  to  increase  in  volume  till  it 
drained  Ireland  of  about  twelve  thousand  annually, 
through  several  successive  years.  These  were  from  the 
North  of  Ireland,  and  mostly  Presbyterians.  In  con- 
sidering the  work  of  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church,  we 
must  count  as  one  of  its  greatest  achievements,  this 
contribution  to  the  founding  and  building  up  of  the 
American  Presbyterian  Church,  and  also  to  the  founding 
and  building  up  of  the  American  Republic.  The  foolish 
and  persecuting  policy  of  the  English  Government 
wrought  this  invaluable  benefit  to  the  transatlantic 
colonies. 

Internal  Troubles  From  Novelties  in  Doctrine. — 
With  the  death  of  Queen  Anne  in  17 14,  and  the  ac- 
cession of  George  I,  the  external  troubles  of  the  Church 
were  very  considerably  lightened.  But  preceding  this 
date  some  apprehension  had  been  awakened  by  certain 
doctrinal  divergencies.  In  1703,  the  Church  found  it 
necessary  to  depose  the  Rev.  Thomas  Emlyn  for 
preaching  Arianism.  It  was  much  easier,  however,  to 
deal  with  an  error  so  manifest  and  so  flagrant  as  this 
than  with  other  more  vague  and  subtle  errors  which  now 
began  to  diffuse  themselves.  The  ''  Belfast  Society " 
was  organized  in  1705.  It  was  a  clerical  club,  the  object 
of  which  was  mutual  improvement  by  the  discussion  of 
theological,  and  alhed  topics.  The  leading  spirit  in  form- 
ing the  society  and  in  directing  its  discussions  was  the 
Rev.  John  Abernethy  of  Antrim.  He  was  a  laborious 
pastor,  a  diligent  student,  and  a  man  of  fine  literary  gifts 
and  taste.     In  the  meetings  of  the  society,  many  new 


198     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

views  were  exploited,  some  of  which  crystaUized  into  the 
outspoken  conviction  that  sincerity  was  the  true  and 
only  test  of  one's  religious  state ;  that  only  errors  willfully 
held  were  culpable ;  and  that  it  was  a  sin  against  personal 
liberty  to  require  subscription  to  a  creed.  A  sermon 
preached  by  Mr.  Abernethy  in  17 19  brought  him 
prominently  to  the  front  as  the  champion  of  these  views. 
It  awakened  a  controversy  that  was  carried  on  through 
the  press  and  in  the  Church  courts  for  many  years.  The 
synod  passed  a  number  of  acts  of  a  temporizing  char- 
acter to  allay  the  irritation,  and  to  stop  the  growing  dis- 
sensions, but  these  failed  of  their  good  intent.  Matters 
grew  worse  rather  than  better.  Rev.  Samuel  Halliday 
refused  to  sign  the  Confession  of  Faith,  but  presented  in- 
stead, a  declaration  of  faith  prepared  by  himself.  The 
majority  of  the  presbytery  expressed  themselves  satisfied, 
and  installed  him  pastor  at  Belfast.  The  minority  carried 
the  matter  by  complaint  to  synod.  That  body  rebuked 
the  majority,  but  when  these  declared  that  their  con- 
sciences would  not  permit  them  to  "  subscribe  to  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  or  submit  to  the  act  of  synod,"  nothing 
further  was  done  in  the  case.  At  the  meeting  of  the 
General  Synod  in  1721,  seventeen  memorials  were  pre- 
sented from  as  many  sessions,  asking  that  all  the  mem- 
bers of  all  Church  courts  be  required  to  sign  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith.  The  synod  contented  itself  by  simply 
resolving  to  permit  all  members  of  the  court  to  sub- 
scribe the  Confession,  hoping  by  this  means  to  quiet  the 
apprehension  felt  throughout  the  Church.  The  Belfast 
Society  argued  against  even  this  voluntary  subscription ; 
but  an  overwhelming  majority  favored  it,  and  nearly  all 
the  members  of  the  synod  who  were  present  signed  the 
Confession.     Some,  however,  refused,  and  this  gave  rise 


IRELAND  199 

to  the  party  names, "  subscribers,"  and  "  nonsubscribers." 
Four  years  later  the  synod  tried  another  metliod  of 
heahng  the  contentions  which  were  all  the  while  widen- 
ing and  deepening.  It  formed  the  Presbytery  of  Antrim 
on  the  elective  affinity  principle,  and  into  this  presbytery 
it  endeavored  to  gather  all  the  nonsubscribers.  By  this 
quarantine  measure,  it  was  hoped,  but  vainly  hoped,  to 
prevent  the  contagion  of  lax  doctrine  from  spreading 
more  widely.  This  arrangement  was  to  continue  *•  until 
the  God  of  peace  shall  mercifully  remove  present  misun- 
derstandings." But  the  very  next  year  it  was  deemed 
advisable  to  resort  to  a  more  drastic  remedy,  and  the 
synod  cut  off  the  diseased  member.  This  brave  act  of 
surgery  was  performed  largely  through  the  votes  of  the 
ruling  elders. 

Coming  of  the  Seceder  Church  of  Scotland  into  Ire- 
land.— Not  even  the  cutting  off  of  the  Presbytery  of 
Antrim  from  the  communion  of  the  Church  prevented  the 
spread  of  lax  doctrinal  views.  It  was  a  time  of  sad  spir- 
itual declension  in  both  England  and  Scotland.  With 
the  decline  of  spiritual  life  in  those  two  kingdoms,  doc- 
trinal divergences  grew  up.  Arianism  and  Socinianism 
were  widely  prevalent,  and  were  treated  leniently.  Ire- 
land was  too  closely  related  to  those  two  countries,  and 
especially  to  Scotland,  to  remain  unaffected  by  their  con- 
dition. It  was  from  Scotland  that  the  Irish  Church  con- 
tinued to  receive  her  supply  of  ministers,  sending  her  own 
sons  there  to  be  educated. 

Hence  it  happened  that  God  had  to  provide  a  more 
effective  method  than  any  yet  tried  for  the  preservation 
of  a  pure  faith  in  Ireland.  His  method  was  to  bring 
in  the  conservative  seceders  from  Erskine's  Church  in 
Scotland.     A  little  handful   of  people  at  Lylehill,  near 


200     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Belfast  made  application  to  be  taken  under  care  of  the 
Associate  Presbytery  of  Scotland.  After  several  tem- 
porary supplies  had  been  sent  to  them  by  that  presbytery, 
it  ordained  over  them  as  pastor  the  Rev.  Isaac  Patton  in 
1746.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  Secession  Church 
in  Ireland.  It  grew  with  considerable  rapidity,  so  that  a 
presbytery  was  organized  on  the  12th  of  April,  1750. 
Before  this  date,  the  Mother  Church  in  Scotland  had 
split  into  Burgher  and  Anti-Burgher.  The  struggling 
infant  in  Ireland  had  to  follow  the  maternal  example  ; 
and  consequently  another  presbytery  was  formed  on  the 
24th  of  July,  175 1,  bearing  the  name  of  Burgher,  while 
the  presbytery  previously  formed  rejoiced  in  the  name  of 
Anti-Burgher.  In  course  of  time,  however,  these  divi- 
sions were  healed  ;  and  despite  strenuous  opposition  from 
various  quarters,  the  Secession  Church  grew  into  a  posi- 
ition  of  great  influence,  and  that  influence  was  exerted  in 
behalf  of  conservative  orthodoxy.  It  was  the  salt  that 
preserved  Presbyterianism  in  Ireland  from  total  putrefac- 
tion. Apparently  it  was  rapidly  degenerating  into  the 
same  lifeless  Unitarianism,  into  which  the  Presbyterianism 
of  England  had  descended.  As  it  was,  Arianism  con- 
tinued to  taint  a  large  proportion  of  the  Presbyterian 
ministry,  and  to  perpetuate  in  the  Church  the  troubles 
which  began  in  17 19  with  Mr.  Abernethy.  The  advo- 
cates of  sound  doctrine  had  sufficient  numerical  strength 
to  purge  the  lump  of  the  leaven,  but  they  lacked  the 
spiritual  earnestness  necessary  to  call  into  exercise  that 
strength. 

The  Church  Finally  Purged  Under  the  Leadership  of 
Henry  Cooke. — With  the  incoming  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  there  was  the '  incoming  of  a  more  ardent, 
rehgious    life.     In  connection  with  this   blessing  there 


IRELAND  201 

came  another,  an  effective  leader  in  the  person  of  Henry 
Cooke.  He  was  the  greatest  individual  gift,  perhaps, 
which  God  has  ever  bestowed  on  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Ireland.  He  was  born  in  1788,  educated  at 
Glasgow  College,  and  ordained  to  the  ministry  in  1808. 
He  soon  displayed  great  intellectual  force,  deep  piety  and 
splendid  gifts  of  oratory.  About  the  year  1821,  he  be- 
gan a  warfare  against  Arianism,  and  he  waged  this  war- 
fare with  persistent  purpose  and  unrelenting  rigor  until 
it  terminated  in  a  victory  for  orthodoxy,  glorious  and 
complete.  In  1829,  the  Arians  withdrew,  and  formed  a 
separate  body,  taking  the  name  of  the  Remonstrant 
Synod.  In  1836,  an  act  was  passed  by  the  general  synod 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland,  requiring  that 
every  one  entering  the  ministry,  or  eldership,  should  sub- 
scribe to  the  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith.  On  this 
high,  firm  ground  the  synod  then  planted  itself,  and  from 
that  ground  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  has 
never  to  this  day  suffered  itself  to  be  moved. 

Union  of  Different  Presbyterian  Bodies.— Having 
purged  itself  thoroughly  from  lax  doctrine,  it  was  recog- 
nized that  there  was  no  difference  between  the  Synod  of 
Ulster,  and  the  Secession  Synod,  which  should  longer 
keep  them  apart.  Negotiations  looking  to  union  were 
opened  up  in  1839,  and  the  next  year  saw  the  union  hap- 
pily consumrnated.  The  congregations  of  the  Synod  of 
Ulster  numbered  two  hundred  and  ninety-two,  and  those 
of  the  Secession  Synod  one  hundred  and  forty-one.  The 
consolidation  of  the  two  bodies  formed  what  has  since 
been  known  as  the  general  assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Ireland.  A  few  scattering  congregations  in 
the  south  and  east  of  Ireland,  which  had  been  gathered 
into  the  Synod  of  Munster,  joined  the  assembly  in  1854. 


202     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Religious  Life  and  Activity  of  the  United  Church. — 

The  work  of  this  homogeneous  and  conservative  Church 
has  made  itself  powerfully  felt  in  many  fields.  It  has 
carried  on  successful  foreign  missions  in  India,  and  among 
the  Jews,  and  a  vigorous  home  mission  work  in  diffusing 
evangehcal  religion  throughout  its  native  land.  The 
church  has  two  excellent  theological  schools, — Magee  Col- 
lege at  Londonderry, and  the  Assembly's  College  at  Belfast. 
One  much  needed  work  to  which  the  Church  began  to 
address  itself  about  the  year  1829,  was  the  work  of  Tem- 
perance Reform.  "  The  use  of  whiskey  was  at  this  time 
almost  universal,  and  seemed  to  be  rapidly  growing. 
During  the  ten  years  ending  with  1829,  the  consumption 
of  intoxicating  liquor  in  the  three  kingdoms  doubled. 
The  bottle  was  everywhere — on  the  dinner  table,  and  the 
supper  table,  at  the  wedding,  and  at  the  wake,  at  the 
baptism  and  the  funeral,  produced  as  regularly  as  the 
Bible  when  the  minister  called  to  visit  a  parishioner,  kept 
in  the  vestry  of  nearly  every  church,  and  applied  to  be- 
fore service,  or  after,  or  both.  In  a  word,  it  was  supposed 
to  be  an  absolute  necessity  of  life — as  necessary  as  the 
staff  of  life  itself.  Ministers  and  people  alike  drank ;  the 
elders  drank ;  everybody  drank."  The  suggestion  for 
reform  came  from  America,  where  the  first  temperance 
societies  had  recently  been  formed.  Dr.  John  Edgar  led 
the  movement,  and  began  by  emptying  a  jug  of  his  own 
from  his  parlor  window.  The  first  pledge  required 
abstinence  only  from  distilled  liquor.  But  later,  the 
pledge  was  made  more  rigid,  including  all  intoxicating 
drinks.  The  sentiment  of  the  Church  was  gradually 
revolutionized,  and  now  five  sixths  of  the  ministers,  and 
nearly  all  the  theological  students  are  committed  to  total 
abstinence. 


IRELAND  203 

In  conjunction  with  the  government,  a  great  work  has 
been  accomphshcd  in  behalf  of  pubUc  education.  In  the 
province  of  Connaught,  forty  thousand  poor  children 
have  been  educated.  Another  work  of  beneficence  is 
carried  on  through  the  Orphan  Society.  Three  thousand 
children  are  cared  for  at  an  expense  of  ;^50,ooo  annually. 

Church  Endowment. — The  Rcgiuui  Domini,  which 
had  its  origin  in  a  gift  of  six  hundred  pounds  from 
Charles  II,  was  enlarged  from  time  to  time  until  it 
amounted  to  ;^ 39,000  per  annum.  In  1869,  the  Parlia- 
ment passed  an  act,  commuting  the  Rcgiuvt  Donnm  to  a 
lump  sum  of  ^587,735.  This  constitutes  a  permanent 
endowment,  yielding  about  ;^25,ooo  per  annum.  At 
once  a  movement  was  set  on  foot  to  raise  a  sustentation 
fund  by  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the  people,  to 
supplement  the  government  grant.  The  movement  re- 
sulted in  adding  an  additional  ^25,000  to  the  annual 
income  of  the  Church.  From  this  permanent  resource  of 
;^5O,000,  the  salaries  of  the  ministers  are  paid,  supple- 
mented by  the  congregations  as  their  ability  and  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  minister  may  determine. 

Instrumental  Music  in  Worship. — Beginning  with  the 
year  1868,  when  a  harmonium  was  introduced  into  the 
congregation  of  Enniskillen,  the  Church  entered  on  a 
period  of  high  debate  on  the  subject  of  instrumental 
music  in  worship,  lasting  eighteen  years.  A  truce  was 
then  agreed  upon  for  three  years,  on  condition  that  a 
committee,  composed  of  those  who  favored  the  use  of 
instruments,  should  be  appointed  to  persuade,  if  possible, 
congregations  into  which  instruments  had  been  intro- 
duced to  dispense  with  them.  The  final  outcome,  how- 
ever, has  been  to  leave  the  matter  of  instrument,  or  no 
instrument,  discretionary  with  each  congregation. 


204     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

As  a  concluding  word,  it  may  be  safely  said  that  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  is  one  of  the  most 
thoroughly  orthodox,  consistently  conservative,  and 
healthfully  active  of  all  the  churches  in  the  great  brother- 
hood of  hke  faith  and  order. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
ENGLAND  AND  WALES 

I.  The  Presbyterian  Church  of  England. — The 
origin  and  development  of  Presbyterianism  in  England 
were  peculiar  and  are  somewhat  difficult  to  trace.  It 
was  smothered  down,  and  almost  smothered  out  by  the 
superincumbent  weight  of  royal  and  episcopal  intoler- 
ance. Until  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth,  when  for 
a  time  the  Puritans  had  matters  their  own  way,  Presby- 
terianism was  little  more  than  a  theory.  Its  advocates 
tried,  indeed,  to  give  it  practical  effect,  but  without 
breaking  with  the  Established  Church,  and  within  the 
very  narrow  limits  allowed  by  that  church  to  liberty  of 
dissent.  It  was  like  trying  to  grow  a  flower  garden  on  a 
window  sill,  or  rear  a  forest  of  oaks  in  a  greenhouse. 
The  poor  cramped  product  was  feeble  and  defective. 
Not  only  was  the  space  too  small,  but  the  environment 
was  unfriendly.  The  patrons  of  Presbyterianism  had  to 
show  their  love  for  it  stealthily,  and  nurse  its  sickly  and 
deformed  hfe  under  cover,  as  if  guilty  of  a  crime.  So 
careful  were  they  to  conceal  their  doings  that  they  left 
few  records  behind  them;  and  this  increases  the  diffi- 
culty of  tracing  their  history. 

The  Act  of  Uniformity,  1559.— When  Elizabeth  came 
to  the  throne  in  1558  it  was  expected  that  she  would  blot 
out,  as  far  as  possible,  the  sad  effects  of  the  policy  of 
her  predecessor's  bloody  reign,  take  up  the  work  of  the 
Reformation  where  the  death  of  Edward  VI  had  inter- 

205 


2o6     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

rupted  it,  and  carry  it  out  to  a  glorious  conclusion.  This 
expectation  was  grievously  disappointed.  It  is  true  that 
she,  in  a  measure,  undid  the  work  of  Mary,  but  she  threw 
her  imperious  will  across  all  efforts  to  carry  the  Reforma- 
tion any  farther  than  it  had  already  gone.  Utterly 
destitute  of  religious  sentiment,  she  availed  herself  of  her 
position  as  head  of  the  Church  to  make  ecclesiastical 
affairs  subservient  to  her  ideas  of  statecraft.  Instead  of 
adopting  a  thoroughgoing  Protestant  policy,  she  chose  a 
compromise  position  with  the  hope  of  conciliating  her 
large  body  of  Roman  CathoHc  subjects.  "  The  hturgy, 
after  being  stripped  of  some  phrases  likely  to  prove  offen- 
sive to  Romish  ears,  and  brought  into  closer  affinity  to  the 
popish  missal,  was  fixed  down  by  Parliamentary  statute." 
In  1559  the  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed,  forbidding 
the  slightest  deviation  from  the  prayer  book  in  the  con- 
duct of  service  in  the  Church.  Thus  the  worship  of  the 
Church  was  stereotyped,  and  compliance  with  this  form 
was  enforced  by  the  civil  power.  There  were  many  in 
the  Church,  and  among  them  some  noted  for  learning 
and  piety,  whose  consciences  were  troubled  by  certain  of 
the  prescribed  rites  and  ceremonies,  which  savored  of 
popish  superstition  and  idolatry.  The  effect  of  the  Act 
of  Uniformity  was  to  draw  these  earnest  reformers  closer 
together,  and  to  form  them  into  what  was  henceforth 
known  as  the  Puritan  party.  Presbyterianism  had  its 
development  in  this  party. 

External  Influence  Favorable  to  English  Presby- 
terianism.— The  first  English  reformers  maintained  a 
close  and  friendly  relation  with  the  reformers  of  the  con- 
tinent, and  especially  with  the  Swiss  reformers.  Many 
of  them  took  refuge  in  the  cities  of  Switzerland  during 
the  Marian  persecution.     These  became  acquainted  with 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  207 

the  model  of  church  government  instituted  by  Calvin. 
Indeed,  Miles  Coverdale,  one  of  the  noblest  of  them  all, 
acted  as  an  "  humble  elder  in  John  Knox's  Church  in 
Geneva."  These  exiles  hastened  home  when  Elizabeth 
came  to  the  throne,  naturally  supposing  that  their  day 
had  at  length  come.  Sad  was  their  disappointment  at 
the  course  pursued  by  their  new  sovereign  ;  and  when  she 
insisted  on  retaining  in  the  English  Church  the  mediaeval 
ceremonies,  vestments,  and  ritual,  •*  the  bag  and  baggage  " 
of  popery,  they  found  themselves  entirely  out  of  sympathy 
with  their  environment.  For  a  time,  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity was  not  strictly  executed,  and  these  earnest 
reformers  were  permitted  to  pursue  their  pastoral  duties 
unmolested.  But  in  a  few  years  more  stringent  measures 
were  taken,  and  then  a  number  of  these  devoted  men 
consented  to  be  suspended  or  deposed  from  office  rather 
than  conform.  Such  tyranny  developed  a  more  radical 
opposition  on  the  part  of  the  Puritans,  and  made  them 
long  for  the  freer  and  more  scriptural  type  of  church 
government  with  which  they  had  become  acquainted  on 
the  continent. 

Thomas  Cartwright  (1535-1603). — Presbyterianism 
needed  an  expounder  and  a  champion,  and  one  was  raised 
up  in  the  person  of  Thomas  Cartwright.  He  was  a 
graduate  of  Cambridge,  and  was  made  Lady  Margaret 
professor  of  divinity  in  1569,  and  began  to  lecture  on  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.  It  was  soon  found  that  his  ex- 
positions of  Scripture  would  prove  destructive  of  the 
Episcopal  establishment,  for  he  professed  to  find  an 
entirely  different  form  of  government  provided  for  the 
Church  by  the  apostles.  He  laid  down  six  propositions 
which  formed  the  platform  of  the  Presbyterian  party  : 
(i)  "That  the  names  and  functions  of  archbishops  and 


2o8     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

archdeacons  ought  to  be  abohshed.  (2)  That  the  offices 
of  the  lawful  ministers  of  the  Church,  viz.,  bishops  and 
deacons,  ought  to  be  reduced  to  their  apostolic  institu- 
tion ;  bishops  to  preach  the  word  of  God  and  pray,  and 
deacons  to  be  employed  in  taking  care  of  the  poor. 
(3)  That  the  government  of  the  Church  ought  not  to  be 
intrusted  to  bishop's  chancellors,  or  the  officials  of  arch- 
deacons ;  but  every  church  ought  to  be  governed  by  its 
own  minister  and  presbyters.  (4)  That  ministers  ought 
not  to  be  at  large,  but  every  one  should  have  charge  of  a 
particular  congregation.  (5)  That  no  man  ought  to 
solicit,  or  to  stand  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry.  (6) 
That  ministers  ought  not  to  be  created  by  the  sole 
authority  of  the  bishop,  but  to  be  openly  and  fairly 
chosen  by  the  people."  For  such  wholesome  teachings 
as  these  he  was  ousted  from  his  professorship,  and  sought 
refuge  from  persecution,  by  crossing  to  the  continent. 
He  went  to  Geneva,  where  by  intercourse  with  Theodore 
Beza,  he  had  his  Presbyterian  convictions  deepened.  He 
returned  to  England,  and  took  the  leading  part  in  a  bitter 
controversy,  stretching  through  years,  betw^een  the  Puri- 
tans and  Prelatists. 

The  Presbytery  of  Wandsworth,  1572. — The  first 
attempt  which  the  Presbyterians  made  to  give  practical 
effect  to  their  principles  was  in  the  fall  of  1572,  at 
Wandsworth,  a  suburban  parish  of  London.  This  they 
did,  not  by  separating  from  the  establishment,  but  by 
trying  to  create  an  ecclesiola  in  ecclesia.  They  attempted 
substantially  what  Wesley  attempted  two  centuries  later, 
to  organize  societies  in  the  Church  for  the  purpose  of 
purifying  the  morals  and  nourishing  the  piety  of  the  mem- 
bers. Eleven  elders  were  chosen  ;  and  these,  together 
with  the   Rev.  John  Pleld,  constituted  a  kind  of  church 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  209 

session,  or  congregational  presbytery.  They  did  not 
assume  jurisdiction,  however,  over  the  entire  parish  of 
Wandsworth,  but  only  over  those  who  voluntarily  placed 
themselves  under  their  supervision.  No  minutes  of  their 
proceedings  have  been  preserved ;  but  it  is  manifest  from 
the  literature  of  the  period  that  they  adopted  in  the  out- 
set a  book  of  discipline.  This  was  known  as  the  "  Order 
of  Wandsworth,"  but  no  copy  of  it  has  come  down  to  us. 
This  parochial  presbytery  of  Wandsworth  was  the  model, 
and  its  book  of  discipline  the  basis,  of  hundreds  of  other 
parochial  organizations  throughout  England.  These  or- 
ganizations were  formed  with  as  little  noise  as  possible, 
and  the  effort  was  made  to  carry  out  their  purpose  with- 
out disturbing  the  settled  order  of  the  establishment. 
But  the  queen  and  her  bishops  were  watching  them  like 
a  hawk  watching  the  chickens,  ready  to  pounce  upon 
them  at  any  moment,  and  destroy  them. 

The  Prophesyings. — This  is  the  name,  given  to  meet- 
ings of  the  clergy  for  conference,  for  mutual  help,  and 
Scripture-exposition.  Froude  gives  an  account  of  these 
meetings  as  held  in  the  Church  of  Northampton  as  early 
as  the  year  1571.  "On  Saturdays,  the  ministers  of  the 
different  neighborhoods  assembled  to  compare  opinions, 
and  discuss  difficult  texts  ;  and  once  a  quarter  all  the 
clergy  of  the  county  for  mutual  survey  of  their  own  gen- 
eral behavior.  Offenses  given  or  taken  were  men- 
tioned, explanations  heard,  and  reproof  administered 
when  necessary."  Ministers  who  took  part  in  these 
meetings  were  required  to  declare  by  subscription  their 
"  consent  in  Christ's  true  religion,  with  their  brethren,  and 
submit  to  the  discipline  and  order  of  the  same."  It  will 
be  seen  from  this  language  that  these  meetings  were  dis- 
tinct organizations.     Among  other  things  they  made  it 


2IO     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

their  business  both  to  confer  about,  and  to  practice  dis- 
cipline. They  took  steps  to  organize  parochial  presby- 
teries ;  and  in  a  general  way,  as  circumstances  permitted, 
they  performed  the  function  of  classical  presbyteries. 
Like  the  lesser  organizations  of  their  creation,  they  felt 
it  necessary  to  carry  on  their  work  stealthily.  For  ex- 
ample, we  read  :  "  There  was  an  assembly  of  threescore 
ministers  appointed  out  of  Essex,  Cambridgeshire,  and 
Norfolk,  to  meet  the  8th  day  of  May,  1582,  at  Cock- 
field,  there  to  confer  of  the  Common  Book,  what  might 
be  tolerated  and  what  necessarily  to  be  refused  in  every 
point  of  it,  apparel,  matter,  form,  days,  fastings,  injunc- 
tions, etc.  Of  this  meeting  it  is  reported,  Our  meeting 
was  appointed  to  be  kept  very  secretly  and  to  be  made 
knozvn  to  none!'  It  is  obvious  that  Presbyterianism  could 
have  no  healthy  development,  nor  reach  any  large  propor- 
tions when  it  was  felt  that  all  manifestations  of  its  life 
must  be  kept  a  profound  secret.  Still  it  was  growing 
and  its  principles  had  found  clear  and  definite  expression 
in  the  "  Book  of  Discipline,"  This  book  is  supposed  to 
be  the  outgrowth  of  the  "  Order  of  Wandsworth,"  which 
was  revised,  corrected  and  enlarged  from  time  to  time  in 
the  numerous  conferences  which  were  held  during  the 
years  between  the  setting  up  of  the  Presbytery  of 
Wandsworth,  and  the  printing  of  the  book  in  1584.  It 
was  first  written  in  Latin,  and  then  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Thomas  Cartwright.  It  was  reprinted  in  1644 
for  the  use  of  the  Long  Parliament  and  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  with  the  title :  "  A  Directory  of  Church 
Government.  Anciently  contended  for,  and  as  far  as 
the  times  would  suffer,  practiced  by  the  first  Noncom- 
formists  in  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  Found  in  the 
study  of  the  most   accomplished  divine,  Thomas  Cart- 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  211 

wright  after  his  decease,  and  reserved  to  be  published  for 
such  a  time  as  this.  PubHshed  by  Authority.  London  : 
printed  for  John  Wright  in  the  Old  Bailly,  1644." 

The  Growing  Opposition  of  the  Queen.— Few  Popes 
have  been  more  determined,  or  more  zealous  in  putting 
down  heresy  than  was  Queen  Elizabeth  in  suppressing 
all  liberty  of  worship  and  of  ecclesiastical  administration. 
The  Act  of  Supremacy  put  the  Church  absolutely  under 
her  power.  This  act  was  supplemented  by  another 
creating  the  Court  of  High  Commission,  an  agency 
through  which  the  queen's  supremacy  could  be  made 
effective.  The  queen  appointed  the  members  of  this 
court,  and  its  jurisdiction  and  powers  resembled  very 
closely  the  famous  Spanish  Court  of  Liquisition.  It 
could  arrest  all  suspects,  and  if  witnesses  were  wanting, 
it  could  apply  torture.  Lord  Burleigh,  one  of  Elizabeth's 
great  ministers,  compared  it  to  the  Spanish  Liquisition, 
and  accorded  it  the  preeminence  as  an  instrument  of  un- 
righteousness. It  was  a  fit  instrument  for  the  queen's 
overbearing  and  arbritary  disposition.  She  found  an  ad- 
mirable engineer  for  it  in  the  person  of  Whitgift,  her 
archbishop.  When  it  was  discovered  that  the  prophesy- 
ings  and  the  presbyteries  were  spreading,  and  their  in- 
fluence growing,  despite  the  milder  measures  of  repres- 
sion that  were  used,  at  the  instance  of  the  archbishop 
the  queen  reorganized  the  Court  of  High  Commission, 
and  inaugurated  a  more  vigorous  crusade.  In  a  short 
while,  more  than  two  hundred  ministers  were  suspended, 
and  these  were  described  by  the  Earl  of  Leicester  as 
among  the  most  faithful  and  laborious  of  the  clergy.  It 
was  no  concern  to  the  queen  that  the  people  were  de- 
prived of  the  services  of  these  godly  men.  She  said  two 
or  three  preachers  to  the  county  were  sufficient.     She 


212     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

seemed  to  think  that  all  could  be  saved  who  were  worth 
saving  by  means  of  the  prayer  book  and  the  homilies. 
She  and  her  •*  little  black  parson "  held  on  their  way 
until  all  of  Presbyterianism  that  dared  to  show  itself  was 
crushed  out.  It  probably  reached  its  highest  organized 
development  when  as  many  as  500  clergymen  had  signed 
the  "  Book  of  Discipline,"  and  when  defective  parochial 
presbyteries  after  the  pattern  of  Wandsworth  had  been 
set  up  in  quite  a  number  of  counties  over  the  kingdom. 

Presbyterianism  During  the  Reigns  of  James  I  and 
Charles  I. — When  EUzabeth  died  in  1603,  her  cousin, 
James  I,  came  down  from  Scotland  to  take  her  place. 
He  had  been  reared  a  Presbyterian  ;  and  on  one  occasion 
when  he  wished  to  make  himself  peculiarly  agreeable  to 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland,  he  de- 
clared that  the  Presbyterian  Church  was  the  "  sincerest 
kirk  in  the  world,"  and  that  the  Episcopal  Church  was 
but  an  "  ill-said  mass  in  English."  But  things  looked 
differently  when  he  came  to  be  head  of  the  English  Es- 
tablishment with  a  set  of  truculent  bishops  to  help  him 
to  realize  his  ideas  of  the  '*  divine  right  of  kings."  Then 
it  seemed  to  him  that  nothing  was  more  certainly  de- 
structive of  royal  prerogative  than  the  form  of  church 
government  under  which  he  had  been  reared.  He 
promptly  announced  this  conviction,  and  declared  his 
purpose  to  grant  no  tolerance  to  dissent  from  the  prayer 
book.  Throughout  his  reign  of  twenty-two  years,  the 
spirit  of  discontent  did  not  slumber.  The  desire  for  a 
more  liberal  policy  grew  more  intense  and  widespread. 
But  there  was  no  further  attempt  to  organize  the  discon- 
tented elements  along  Presbyterian  lines. 

With  the  incoming  of  Charles  I  in  1625,  there  arose  to 
a  position  of  great  and  growing  influence  an  ecclesiastic 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  213 

who  by  developing  the  tyrannical  tendency  of  Episcopacy 
to  the  utmost  contributed  to  the  rapid  growth  of  Presby- 
terian sentiment.  William  Laud,  elevated  to  the  Sec  of 
Canterbury  in  1633,  attempted  by  the  most  cruel  and  arbi- 
trary methods  to  crush  out  dissent.  His  policy  culminated 
in  an  effort  to  force  a  fully-developed  Episcopacy  on 
Scotland.  This  precipitated  a  revolt ;  and  this  led  to  the 
king's  calling  the  Long  Parliament.  Then  followed  the 
civil  war,  the  abrogation  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  and 
the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy. 

The  Westminster  Assembly.— On  the  13th  of  June, 
1643,  the  Parliament  passed  an  ordinance  with  the  fol- 
lowing title  :  "  An  ordinance  of  the  Lords  and  Commons 
in  Parliament,  for  the  calling  of  an  assembly  of  learned 
and  godly  divines  and  others,  to  be  consulted  with  by 
the  Parliament  for  the  settling  of  the  government  and 
liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  for  vindicating  and 
clearing  the  doctrine  of  said  Church  from  false  aspersions 
and  interpretations."  The  ordinance  specified  for  this 
advisory  assembly  one  hundred  and  twenty-one  divines, 
and  thirty  laymen,  ten  of  these  to  be  taken  from  the 
House  of  Lords,  and  twenty  from  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. As  the  object  of  the  assembly  was  to  assist  Par- 
liament in  devising  a  new  National  Church  to  take  the 
place  of  the  prelatical  system  which  had  been  abolished, 
Parliament  very  wisely  sought  to  have  a  variety  of  views 
represented.  Hence  the  assembly  contained  four  distinct 
parties.  There  were  some  who  preferred  Episcopacy ; 
others,  who  had  submitted  to  Episcopacy,  serving  parish 
churches  in  the  establishment,  but  who  were  by  convic- 
tion Presbyterians ;  others,  who  had  left  the  Established 
Church  and  were  known  as  Independents  ;  and  others, 
who  were  opposed  to  any  and  every  form  of  church 


214     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

government,  believing  that  all  administration  of  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  civil  magistrate 

these  were  designated  Erastians.     The  assembly  was  in 

the  fullest  sense  the  creature  of  Parliament.  It  had  its 
work  cut  out  for  it  by  Parliament ;  its  method  of  proce- 
dure was  prescribed  ;  and  its  conclusions  were  of  force  only 
when  ratified  by  Parliament.  Four  bishops  were  nomi- 
nated to  the  assembly ;  but  as  the  king  was  already  at 
war  with  Parliament,  and  had  forbidden  the  meeting  of 
the  assembly,  these  bishops  declined  to  take  part  in  it,  and 
along  with  them  all  the  thoroughgoing  Episcopalians. 
The  assembly,  therefore,  as  actually  cojistituted,  was 
composed  of  Presbyterians,  Independents  and  Erastians. 
The  Meeting  of  the  Assembly,  and  Its  Work.— 
The  assembly  met  on  the  first  day  of  July,  1643,  in  the 
Abbey  Church  of  Westminster;  and  was  opened  with  a 
sermon  by  Dr.  Twisse,  from  the  text  (John  14:  18):  "I 
will  not  leave  you  comfortless."  There  were  present 
sixty-nine  members  of  the  assembly,  both  houses  of  Par- 
liament, and  a  great  congregation  of  others.  After  the 
sermon,  the  members  of  the  assembly  adjourned  to  the 
chapel  of  Henry  VII.  There  the  ordinance,  calling  them 
together,  was  read  ;  the  roll  was  called  ;  and  then  they 
adjourned  for  a  few  days  to  give  Parliament  time  to  pre- 
pare work  for  them.  When  they  reassembled,  they  or- 
ganized for  work  by  distributing  the  whole  assembly  into 
three  committees,  to  each  of  which  was  assigned  a 
specific  work.  The  first  task  committed  to  them  was  the 
revision  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. They  wrought  on  this  from  July  till  the  following 
October.  In  the  meantime  an  alliance  had  been  formed 
with  Scotland,  on  the  basis  of  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant.     This  brought  to  the  assembly  six  commis- 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  215 

sioners  from  the  Church  of  Scotland ;  and  committed 
ParHament  to  a  new  undertaking.  In  signing  the  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,  the  Parliament  engaged  to  en- 
deavor to  bring  about  a  general  uniformity  in  religion  of 
the  three  churches  of  England,  Scotland  and  Ireland. 
To  carry  into  effect  this  engagement,  it  ordered  the 
assembly  to  lay  aside  the  work  of  revising  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  and  to  enter  upon  the  work  of  constructing 
de  novo  articles  of  faith,  a  form  of  government,  rules  of 
discipline  and  a  directory  of  worship.  The  assembly  lost 
no  time  in  entering  on  this  arduous  and  most  important 
task.  The  work  of  framing  all  these  formularies  was 
carried  on  simultaneously,  sometimes  the  one  receiving 
special  attention,  sometimes  another.  As  the  prayer 
book  had  been  abolished,  the  most  urgent  demand  was  a 
directory  of  worship,  and  a  form  of  ordination,  that  the 
many  vacant  churches  might  be  supplied  with  properly- 
constituted  pastors.  These  two  matters  engaged  most  of 
the  attention  of  the  assembly  until  they  were  finished. 
After  these  in  order  of  completion  came  the  P'orm  of 
Government,  Confession  of  Faith,  and  the  two  Cate- 
chisms. The  time  occupied  on  the  various  tasks  was  five 
years  and  six  months  ;  and  the  number  of  sessions  held 
for  their  consideration  was  eleven  hundred  and  sixty- 
three. 

Result  of  the  Assembly's  ^Vo^k.— On  the  19th  of 
June,  1647,  the  Parliament  ordained  "  that  all  parishes 
within  England  and  Wales  be  brought  under  the  govern- 
ment of  congregational,  classical,  provincial  and  national 
churches  according  to  the  form  of  Presbyterial  govern- 
ment agreed  upon  by  the  Assembly  of  Divines  at  West- 
minster." In  carrying  this  into  effect  the  kingdom  was 
to  be  divided  into  sixty  synods  ;  these  were  to  be  cut  up 


2i6     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

into  classical  presbyteries;  and  the  whole  was  to  be 
topped  with  a  National  Assembly.  The  presbyteries 
were  to  meet  monthly  ;  the  synods  semiannually,  and 
the  General  Assembly  annually.  Thus  the  machinery 
was  perfected,  and  orders  were  issued  that  it  be  put  into 
operation.  It  seemed  as  if  the  brightest  hopes  of  the 
Presbyterians  were  to  be  realized.  But  such  a  consum- 
mation was  not  to  be.  The  strange  sequel  of  the  history 
is  that  the  Westminster  Assembly  performed  a  work  of 
inestimable  and  permanent  value  for  the  Presbyterians  of 
Scotland,  of  Ireland,  of  the  United  States  of  America,  of 
the  world  at  large,  but  a  work  which  proved  of  almost 
no  practical  value  to  the  Presbyterians  of  England,  the 
very  persons  for  whom  it  was  especially  designed. 
Presbyterianism,  as  a  legal  establishment,  took  posses- 
sion of  a  very  small  part  of  its  territory,  and  had  a  very 
short  career.  A  provincial  synod  was  set  up  in  London, 
which  met  for  the  first  time  on  the  3d  of  May,  1647 ;  and 
for  the  last  time,  probably,  on  the  15th  of  August,  1660. 
Thirteen  years  was  the  extreme  limit  of  its  age;  and 
only  in  London  did  it  have  anything  like  so  long  a  ten- 
ure of  life  as  that.  In  fact,  the  only  other  place  where  it 
went  into  full  operation  was  in  the  County  of  Lancashire. 
There  a  synod  was  formed,  and  the  county  divided  into 
nine  presbyteries.  Futile  attempts  were  made  in  a  few 
other  counties  to  start  the  machinery  to  going  ;  but  over 
the  larger  part  of  England  there  seems  not  to  have  been 
any  serious  effort  to  make  the  Presbyterian  Establishment 
effective. 

Reasons  for  the  Failure  of  Presbyterianism  as  a 
National  Institution.— In  the  first  place,  it  was  national 
only  by  act  of  Parliament.  The  majority  of  the  English 
nation  knew  nothing  by  experience  of  Presbyterianism, 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  217 

and  cared  nothing  for  it  as  a  theory.  They  knew  it  as 
a  Scotch  commodity,  and  the  fact  that  it  was  Scotch  did 
not  by  any  means  commend  it  to  their  favorable  regard. 
They  might  have  suffered  it  to  be  thrust  upon  them  by 
ParHament,  but  they  were  not  eager  to  cooperate  with 
Parhament.  In  the  second  place,  Parliament  tacked  on 
an  Erastian  feature  to  the  work  of  the  Westminster  As- 
sembly which  dampened  the  ardor  of  the  great  leaders  of 
that  body.  The  Westminster  divines  framed  a  govern- 
ment for  the  Church  which  was  designed  to  give  it 
autonomy.  In  other  words,  they  made  provision  for  the 
Church  to  govern  itself;  and  they  were  zealous  for  the  self- 
government  of  the  Church.  But  Parliament  determined 
to  keep  all  reins  of  power  in  its  own  hands,  and  so  re- 
served to  all  church  members  the  right  of  appeal  from  the 
censures  of  the  Church  to  the  civil  power.  The  Erastians 
who  were  defeated  in  the  assembly  carried  the  day  in 
Parliament.  Very  naturally  the  Presbyterians  were  not 
over-zealous  to  give  effect  to  a  church  polity  that  was 
thus  disfigured  with  the  obnoxious  feature  against  which 
they  had  so  earnestly  contended.  They  cared  little  for 
the  establishment  of  a  church  government  which  was  de- 
prived of  the  power  to  determine  the  qualifications  of  its 
own  members.  In  the  third  place,  the  crowning  and  all- 
sufficient  reason  for  the  failure  of  the  Presbyterians  to 
carry  into  effect  their  system  was  the  ascendency  of 
Cromwell.  He  was  an  Independent  and  sympathized 
with  all  the  other  Independents  in  their  jealousy  of  the 
Presbyterians.  He  believed,  and  had  some  ground  for 
believing  that  were  the  Presbyterians  permitted  to  exer- 
cise the  power  for  which  they  contended,  the  Independ- 
ents along  with  other  sectaries  would  suffer  from  their  in- 
tolerance. 


2i8     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

The   Presbyterian   Theory  of  Church  and  State. — 

While  the  Presbyterians  claimed  the  right  to  govern  the 
Church  independently  of  the  state,  they  also  believed  that 
a  national  church  should  have  the  cooperation  of  the  civil 
power  in  suppressing  dissent.  Just  how  far  they  would 
have  used  persecuting  measures  to  punish  noncon- 
formity, we  can  never  know.  Their  enemies,  prominent 
among  whom  was  the  illustrious  Milton,  exerted  them- 
selves to  make  it  appear  that  the  cause  of  liberty  would 
gain  nothing,  but  rather  be  the  loser,  if  a  Presbyterian 
Establishment,  with  full  power  to  work  its  own  will,  were 
substituted  for  the  old  tyrannical  church  of  Laud  which 
had  been  abolished.  Cromwell  reached  the  summit  of 
power  just  in  time  to  prevent  the  experiment  from  being 
made.  He  laid  his  iron  hand  on  Church  affairs,  and  the 
enactments  of  Parliament,  favoring  Presbyterianism  went 
for  nothing.  His  temper  toward  the  Presbyterians  was 
not  improved  by  their  formal  and  earnest  protest  against 
the  execution  of  the  king.  Moreover,  they  were 
strongly  suspected  of  sympathizing  with  the  Scots  when 
the  latter  rose  in  favor  of  Charles  II.  One  of  their  num- 
ber, Christopher  Love,  was  tried,  convicted  and  executed, 
on  the  charge  of  secretly  abetting  the  rising  in  Scotland ; 
and  one  or  two  others  barely  escaped  the  same  fate. 

Restoration  of  Monarchy  and  Episcopacy,  1660. — 
The  Presbyterians,  having  been  thwarted  in  their  aims 
and  expectations,  were  heartily  tired  of  the  common- 
wealth and  vied  with  the  Episcopalians  in  their  eagerness 
to  welcome  Charles  II  to  the  throne.  So  eager  were  they 
that  they  neglected  to  provide  any  sufficient  guarantee 
for  the  protection  of  their  liberty.  The  result  was  that 
they  soon  found  themselves  at  the  mercy  of  an  unprinci- 
pled king,  dominated  by  resentful  and  uncompromising 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  219 

Episcopalians.  The  restoration  of  the  monarchy  carried 
with  it  the  restoration  of  the  old  establishment.  The 
bishops  and  others  who  had  suffered  from  the  abolition 
of  prelacy  counted  that  their  day  had  come.  The  king 
had  promised  in  a  famous  "  Declaration,"  sent  to  Parlia- 
ment from  his  place  of  exile,  that  if  he  should  be  restored 
to  his  father's  throne  "  no  man  should  be  disquieted  or 
called  in  question  for  differences  of  opinion  in  matters  of 
religion,  which  do  not  disturb  the  peace  of  the  king- 
dom." 

The  Savoy  Conference. — As  if  he  meant  to  keep  this 
promise,  and  by  way  of  showing  that  he  was  not  alto- 
gether ungrateful  to  the  Presbyterians  for  their  conspicu- 
ous loyalty,  the  king  appointed  a  conference  to  be  held 
at  the  Savoy  Palace  between  the  Prelatists  and  the  Pres- 
byterians to  see  if  a  satisfactory  basis  of  compromise 
might  not  be  arranged.  When  the  conference  met,  it  soon 
became  evident  that  whatever  might  be  the  mind  of  the 
king,  the  minds  of  the  bishops  were  distinctly  and  strongly 
against  any  compromise.  The  Presbyterians  showed  a 
willingness  to  accept  a  modified  Episcopacy  ;  but  the  re- 
sentful prelates  would  not  agree  to  the  slightest  conces- 
sions. The  old  establishment  must  be  restored  precisely 
as  it  was  before  the  meeting  of  the  Long  Parliament  in 
1640,  with  its  Thirty-nine  Articles,  and  its  prayer  book 
unaltered  in  the  slightest  particular. 

The  Act  of  Uniformity,  1662.— The  reactionary  tide  in 
favor  of  royalty  which  had  brought  the  king  back  to 
the  throne  continued  to  swell  until  it  became  a  perfect 
tidal  wave,  sweeping  all  before  it.  The  Parliament  which 
met  in  1662  was  impatient  to  wipe  out  every  trace  of  the 
recent  commonwealth.  To  set  at  rest  all  questions  of 
religious  compromise,  they  passed  an  "  Act  of  Uniform- 


220 


HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


ity,"  which  required  that  every  minister  who  had  not 
received  Episcopal  ordination  should  be  reordained ;  and 
that  every  minister  should  on  or  before  the  24th  of 
August  following  "  declare  his  unfeigned  assent  and  con- 
sent to  everything  contained  in  the  book  of  common 
prayer,"  on  pain  of  being  deprived  of  his  benefice.  By 
this  act,  which  went  into  effect  on  St.  Bartholomew's  Day, 
a  day  made  forever  memorable  by  the  massacre  of  the 
Huguenots  of  France,  upwards  of  two  thousand  ministers, 
the  majority  of  whom  were  Presbyterians  were  driven  out 
bare,  roofless,  and  shiftless  upon  the  wide  world."  From 
this  time  forth,  Presbyterianism  was  without  any  organ- 
ization beyond  that  of  the  congregation.  As  respects 
the  congregation,  the  practice  was  not  uniform  of 
having  elders.  The  exercise  of  discipline  was  largely 
in  the  hands  of  the  pastor,  with  whom  was  associated 
sometimes  deputies,  or  committeemen.  There  were 
no  superior  courts.  Ordinations  of  ministers  were  per- 
formed by  associations  of  neighboring  pastors. 

The  Revolution  of  1688. — When  James  II  was  expelled 
from  the  throne,  and  William  of  Orange  came  over  from 
Holland  to  take  his  place,  the  condition  of  all  dissenting 
bodies  was  much  improved.  In  1690  the  "  Toleration 
Act "  was  passed  which  permitted  freedom  of  worship  to 
dissenters  who  secured  a  license  for  their  "  meeting 
houses,"  and  reported  the  same  to  the  bishops.  This  led 
to  quite  a  revival  of  church  life  among  both  the  Presby- 
terians and  Independents.  While  suffering  together 
through  a  number  of  years  the  old  spirit  of  hostile  rivalry 
between  these  two  bodies  largely  died  out.  For  the  sake 
of  common  interests,  they  drew  close  together,  and 
sought  for  a  modus  viveridi,  by  which,  if  they  could  not 
become  identified  as  one  body,  they  could  cooperate  ef- 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  221 

fectively  in  the  preservation  and  propagation  of  a  vigor- 
ous Protestantism.  There  was  formed  by  the  ministers 
of  the  two  bodies  in  London  what  was  called  the  "  Happy 
Union  "  in  1691  ;  and  speedily  similar  unions  were  formed 
in  other  parts  of  the  land.  The  basis  of  the  union  was  a 
document,  known  as  "  Heads  of  Agreement,"  in  which 
both  parties  made  concessions.  There  was  the  prospect 
of  a  permanent  consoHdation ;  but  before  the  union 
had  time  to  set  and  solidify,  a  violent  controversy 
broke  out  over  a  book,  of  which  Dr.  Daniel  Williams,  a 
distinguished  Presbyterian,  was  the  author,  and  the  object 
of  which  was  to  combat  Antinomianism.  An  Independ- 
ent minister  assaulted  the  book  on  the  ground  that  it 
went  to  the  other  extreme  and  substituted  law  for  gospel. 
Thus  the  strife  was  started,  and  before  it  ended  the 
"  Happy  Union  "  in  London  was  shivered  to  atoms  ;  and 
throughout  the  country  the  two  denominations  were  driven 
apart.  Ever  since,  they  have  continued  to  travel  in  dif- 
ferent paths.  While  the  Presbyterians  were  eased  during 
the  reign  of  William  and  Mary,  and  developed  consider- 
able congregational  life,  building  many  "  meeting  houses," 
they  made  no  attempt  to  revive  the  series  of  courts  which 
are  essential  to  fully-organized  Presbyterianism.  They 
believed  in  a  National  Establishment,  and  while  occupy- 
ing the  position  of  dissent,  they  would  not  try  to  give 
national  form  to  their  own  Church. 

Doctrinal  Declension. — About  the  opening  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  a  blight  seemed  to  fall  on  evangelical 
piety  throughout  all  the  Protestant  churches  of  Europe. 
As  always  happens,  a  lowering  of  the  tone  of  piety  was 
accompanied  by  laxity  of  doctrinal  views.  Arminianism, 
which  had  long  since  obtained  a  foothold  in  the  Church 
of  England,  found  its  way  into  the  dissenting  churches. 


222     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

This  was  followed  by  Arianism,  high  and  low,  and  ended 
in  the  most  outspoken  and  aggressive  Socinianism. 
When  in  1753,  Samuel  Davies  and  Gilbert  Tennent  went 
to  England  to  solicit  funds  for  Princeton  College,  they 
were  greatly  distressed  over  the  degeneracy  of  the  Pres- 
byterians. Their  application  for  aid  for  the  young  insti- 
tution was  met  with  the  objection  "  that  the  principles 
inculcated  in  the  college  of  New  Jersey  are  generally 
looked  upon  as  antiquated  and  unfashionable  by  the  dis- 
senters in  England."  Samuel  Davies  wrote  that  "  The 
Presbyterians  particularly,  being  generally  Arminians  or 
Socinians,  seem  shy  of  us."  The  character  of  these 
degenerate  sons  of  noble  sires  grew  from  bad  to  worse  till 
the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Along  with  decline 
in  piety  and  doctrinal  soundness  there  was  a  decline  in 
numbers.  A  reliable  computation  puts  the  number  of 
Presbyterian  congregations  in  171 5  at  550.  The  same 
authority  puts  the  number  in  1772  at  302,  and  these 
divided  about  equally  between  orthodox  and  heterodox. 
This  number  continued  to  diminish  until  nearly  every- 
thing worthy  of  the  name  Presbyterian  became  extinct. 

What  were  the  causes  of  this  sad  and  fatal  degeneracy 
and  decay  ? 

(i)  A  deliberate  rejection  of  tests  of  orthodoxy. 
When  the  first  symptoms  of  doctrinal  laxness  appeared, 
it  created  an  alarm,  and  soon  led  to  the  caUing  of  a  meet- 
ing at  Salter's  Hall,  London.  There  the  question  of  re- 
quiring subscription  to  a  doctrinal  test  was  long  and 
fiercely  debated.  When  the  vote  was  taken,  it  was  de- 
cided by  a  majority  of  four  that  it  would  be  an  unwar- 
rantable interference  with  Christian  liberty  to  require  sub- 
scription to  any  uninspired  statement  of  doctrine.  This 
convention    was    composed   of   both   Independents  and 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  223 

Presbyterians,  the  latter  in  a  majority.  On  inspecting 
the  vote  it  was  found  that  nearly  all  the  Independents 
were  for  subscription,  while  the  vast  majority  of  Presby- 
terians were  opposed  to  it.  This  was  remarkable,  that 
the  denomination  which  had  the  honor  of  framing  the 
Westminster  Standards  deliberately  refused  to  require 
subscription  to  them  as  a  condition  precedent  to  preach- 
ing in  a  Presbyterian  pulpit.  Thus  the  door  was 
opened  to  the  inroads  of  heresy. 

(2)  Want  of  an  organization  for  the  exercise  of  dis- 
cipline. There  were  no  courts  above  the  session,  and 
therefore  the  orthodox  portion  of  the  ministry  was  pow- 
erless to  purge  the  body  of  heresy  when  once  it  became 
affected. 

(3)  Lowering  of  the  educational  standard  of  the  min- 
istry. One  of  the  severest  blows  struck  at  the  Presby- 
terians was  closing  the  universities  against  all  noncon- 
formists. Those  who  laid  the  foundations  of  Presby- 
terianism  in  England,  and  nursed  it  into  its  largest 
growth,  from  the  days  of  Cartwright  down  to  the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  were  University  men.  But 
those  coming  later  received  only  such  training  as  the 
poorly-equipped  schools,  founded  in  the  emergency  by 
dissenters,  could  afford.  This  distinct  lowering  of  the 
scholarship  and  dignity  of  the  Presbyterian  pulpit  caused 
the  loss  of  social  influence,  and  at  the  same  time  con- 
tributed to  the  decline  of  doctrinal  purity. 

Thus  "  under  the  chilling  influences  of  civil  persecu- 
tion, social  ostracism,  and  spiritual  infidelity,  Presby- 
terianism  in  the  eighteenth  century  drooped,  and  all  but 
died.  Isolated  congregations  remained  throughout  the 
country  which  were  Presbyterian  in  name,  but  with 
a  few  bright    exceptions,  they  had   adopted   the   Uni- 


2  24     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

tarian  creed,  and  the  Congregational  mode  of  govern- 
ment." 

Resuscitation  and  Reorganization  of  Presbyterianism. 
— Early  in  the  nineteenth  century  a  brighter  day  dawned 
on  the  feeble  remnant  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
England.  Several  influences  were  helpful  to  its  revival 
and  growth.  In  the  first  place,  the  great  Wesleyan 
revival  had  infused  a  large  measure  of  evangelical  fervor 
into  the  church  life  of  England.  This  was  felt  especially 
among  the  dissenting  bodies  ;  and  the  scattered  congre- 
gations of  Presbyterians  that  were  more  or  less  loyal  to 
the  faith  of  the  fathers  began  to  strengthen  the  things  that 
remained,  and  were  ready  to  die.  In  the  second  place, 
the  revival  of  evangelical  piety  in  the  churches  of  Scot- 
land, which  put  an  end  to  the  long  and  blighting  reign  of 
Moderatism,  contributed  to  a  Hke  revival  in  those  churches 
in  England  which  were  closely  united  in  sympathy  with 
the  Presbyterianism  of  Scotland.  In  the  northern  coun- 
ties of  England,  bordering  on  Scotland,  there  were  quite 
a  number  of  the  old  English  churches  which  through  all 
the  vicissitudes  of  intervening  years  had  maintained  the 
Westminster  type  of  Presbyterianism  in  its  purity,  in  so 
far,  at  least,  as  their  circumstances  would  permit.  They 
had  sent  their  sons  to  the  Scotch  universities  to  be  trained 
for  their  pulpits ;  and  they  had  also  been  served  by  min- 
isters from  the  Scotch  churches.  In  the  third  place  there 
was  an  increasing  number  of  immigrants  from  Scotland, 
settling  in  the  great  centers  of  English  population.  These 
sometimes  formed  churches  of  their  own ;  and  sometimes 
cast  in  their  lot  with  the  English  survivals.  In  either 
case  they  helped  to  draw  ministers  from  the  Scotch 
churches. 

Organization  of  Presbyterianism  in  England. — Stim- 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  225 

Lilated  by  these  various  healthful  influences,  the  growth 
of  Presbyterianism  in  England  has  been  marked,  and  the 
future  is  bright  with  promise.  It  was  found  that  by  the 
year  1836  there  was  a  sufficient  number  of  churches 
holding  fast  to  the  Westminster  standards  and  served  by 
ministers  of  the  established  Church  of  Scotland  to  form  a 
synod.  When  the  disruption  of  the  Church  of  Scotland 
occurred  in  1843,  this  synod  sympathized  with  the  Free 
Church,  and  severed  its  connection  with  the  Scotch 
Establishment.  There  were  a  number  of  other  Presby- 
terian churches  in  England  served  by  ministers  of  the 
Secession  Church  of  Scotland,  or,  after  1844,  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland.  Li  1 863  these  churches 
organized  a  synod.  Then  there  were  two  separate  and 
distinct  Presbyterian  synods  in  England,  independent 
of  outside  churches,  and  also  independent  of  each 
other.  They  held  precisely  the  same  doctrines  and 
polity.  A  few  years  of  brotherly  intercourse  made  it 
evident  that  there  was  no  reason  why  they  should  con- 
tinue to  live  apart.  In  1876,  they  became  one  by  mutual 
and  happy  consent.  Since  that  auspicious  event  the  united 
body  has  grown  very  rapidly ;  and  to-day  the  English 
Presbyterian  Church  stands  forth  a  strong,  well-organized, 
well-equipped  division  of  the  sacramental  host.  It  has 
its  college  and  theological  seminary,  bearing  the  proud 
name  of  Westminster,  planted  within  the  sacred  environs 
of  historic  old  Cambridge.  Scattered  throughout  the 
world  are  multiplied  thousands  of  Presbyterians  who  pay 
homage  to  the  truth  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith,  the  Larger  and  Shorter  Catechisms ; 
and  these  all  look  with  peculiar  interest  on  the  Church 
which  inherits  the  name  and  the  traditions  of  the  fathei-s 
who   gave  them  these  standards.     They  rejoice  in  the 


2  26     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

present  vigor,  and    future   outlook  of  English   Presby- 
terianism. 

When  the  disruption  occurred  in  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land, and  the  English  Presbyterians,  out  of  sympathy 
with  the  Free  Church,  severed  their  connection  with  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  a  small  fragment  remained  faithful, 
and  still  continue  in  organic  relation  with  the  Church  of 
Scotland.  They  are  distributed  in  three  presbyteries,  and 
have  about  three  thousand  five  hundred  communicants. 

II.  The  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church  of  Wales 
Origin  of  the  Name. — This  title  may  seem  a  contra- 
diction in  terms  to  those  who  have  been  long  accustomed 
to  associate  '•  Methodist "  with  "  Arminian."  In  its  origin 
the  term  "  Methodist "  had  nothing  to  do  with  doctrine ; 
but  signified  a  manner  of  Christian  living.  It  was  applied 
to  the  church  in  Wales  because  that  church  had  its  rise 
about  the  same  time  with  English  Methodism,  and  the 
two  movements  were  closely  and  sympathetically  related, 
and  adopted  substantially  the  same  means  for  promoting 
spiritual  hfe.  In  doctrine,  however,  it  differed  from  the 
societies  organized  by  Wesley,  and  to  indicate  this  differ- 
ence the  term  •'  Calvinistic  "  was  used.  The  church  may 
be  described  as  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  Presbyterian  in 
polity,  and  Methodist  in  worship  and  hfe. 

The  Beginnings  of  Welsh  Methodism. — The  apathy 
which,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  laid 
its  paralyzing  touch  on  the  rest  of  Protestant  Christen- 
dom, was  manifest  in  Wales.  But  the  signs  of  reviving 
life  were  witnessed  sooner  here  than  elsewhere  in  Great 
Britain.  The  dawn  of  a  brighter  day  was  due  to  the 
very  earnest  labors  of  the  Rev.  Griffith  Jones,  who  com- 
menced his  ministry  in   1716.     In  addition  to  abundant 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  227 

seed-sowing  through  his  faithful  preaching,  he  organized 
a  system  of  circulating  schools  in  which  young  and  old 
were  instructed  in  the  Bible.  His  work  was  thus  an 
admirable  preparation  for  the  soul-stirring  evangelists 
who  were  to  follow  a  little  later.  His  Bible  schools  in- 
creased till  they  numbered  215,  into  which  were  gathered 
more  than  8,000  scholars. 

The  Great  Revival  Beginning  in  1735.— The  first 
directly  evangelistic  efforts  were  put  forth  by  Howell 
Harris.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  purposed  to 
be  ordained  to  the  ministry.  The  flame  of  devotion 
burned  fiercely  in  his  heart,  and  he  delivered  his  mes- 
sage with  a  force  and  a  fervor  that  startled  men  out  of 
their  carnal  security.  When  he  applied  for  ordination, 
he  was  refused.  He  continued  his  work  as  a  layman. 
God  wrought  with  him ;  and  before  either  Whitefield  or 
Wesley  had  stirred  the  smoldering  embers  in  England 
into  a  flame,  Howell  Harris  had,  under  the  blessing  of 
God,  set  nearly  the  whole  of  South  Wales  on  fire.  He 
began  his  work  about  the  year  1735,  and  four  years 
later,  there  were  thirty  societies  organized  as  the  fruit 
of  his  labors.  These  were  not  churches,  but  companies 
of  Christians,  outwardly  connected  with  the  English 
Episcopal  Church,  but  holding  their  own  regular  meet- 
ings for  mutual  edification.  They  were  subjected  to 
considerable  persecutions  from  those  who  looked  up  on 
their  methods  as  hurtful  innovations.  They  persisted  in 
their  work,  however,  and  their  first  General  Association 
was  held  at  Watford,  Glamorganshire,  January  5,  1742, 
two  years  prior  to  the  first  Conference  of  English 
Methodists  at  London. 

Other  Distinguished  Helpers. — Harris  had  not  been 
preaching  long  before  God  gave  him  a  like-minded  assist- 


221 


HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


ant  in  the  person  of  the  Rev.  Daniel  Rowlands.  He  was 
admitted  to  orders  in  the  English  Church  in  1733,  but, 
according  to  his  own  testimony,  was  not  converted  until 
five  years  later.  Rowlands  was  a  preacher  of  extraordi- 
nary power,  accounted  by  some  as  second  only  to  White- 
field.  Bishop  Ryle  speaks  of  him  as  ''  one  of  the  giants 
of  the  eighteenth  century."  It  was  largely  through  his 
ministry  that  North  Wales  was  soon  sharing  in  the  re- 
vival that  brought  such  blessings  to  South  Wales.  Often 
he  preached  in  the  open  fields  to  audiences  numbering 
several  thousands. 

Other  preachers  of  great  spiritual  power  were  soon 
added  to  the  evangelistic  force.  Among  them,  the  most 
prominent  were  William  WiUiams,  Howell  Davies  and 
John  Evans.  William  Williams  was  the  poet  of  the 
movement,  doing  for  the  Methodists  of  Wales  the  same 
service,  only  in  less  eminent  degree,  which  Charles 
Wesley  did  for  the  Methodism  of  England.  In  1739, 
George  Whitefield  made  a  preaching  tour  through  many 
of  the  towns  of  Wales,  and  gave  a  strong  impetus  to  the 
revival  movement.  At  this  time  he  first  met  Harris,  and 
writes  :  "  I  was  much  refreshed  with  a  sight  of  my  dear 
brother,  Howell  Harris,  whom  I  knew  not  in  person,  but 
long  loved  in  the  bowels  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  on  whose 
behalf  I  have  often  felt  my  soul  drawn  out  in  prayer." 

Of  all  the  blessings  which  God  bestowed  upon  Wales, 
in  the  gift  of  great  and  good  men,  perhaps  the  greatest  was 
the  gift  of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Charles  of  Bala.  His  warm 
evangelical  piety  put  him  out  of  sympathy  with  the  Eng- 
lish Church,  and  for  this  reason  he  cast  in  his  lot  with  the 
Welsh  Calvinists,  joining  their  ranks  in  1785.  He  will 
ever  be  honorably  known  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.     His  agency  in  this 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  229 

was  due  to  his  zealous  and  persistent  efforts  to  supply  the 
Welsh  people  with  the  word  of  God.  He  stamped  his 
impress  permanently  on  the  Church  of  Wales  by  the 
prominent  part  which  he  took  in  giving  the  church  its 
rules  of  discipline,  and  its  organic  form. 

Separation    of   the    Societies    from    the    Church. — 
Those  who  had  been  toiUng  so  arduously,  and  suffering 
so  heroically  for  the  spiritual  good  of  Wales  were  not 
purposing  to  organize  a  new  church.     They  were  merely 
striving  to  lift  Christian  life  to  a  higher  plane.     This  was 
the  object  of  their  preaching,  their  pastoral  labors,  and 
their    societies.     They   were    loyal   to    the    Established 
Church  of  England,  looked  to  it  for  the  administration  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  and  for  the  ordained  ministry.     But 
the  church  looked  upon  them  as  wayward  children ;  and 
instead  of  trying  to  supply  their  spiritual  need,  tried  to 
reclaim  them,  even  by  the  use  of  violent  measures,  from 
their  Methodistical  ways.     The  breach  continually  wid- 
ened, until  it  finally  became  perfectly  evident  that  the 
Welsh  Methodists  must  either  follow  the  example  of  the 
English  Methodists,  and  set  up  for  themselves,  or  lose 
what  they  had  gained  and  gradually  lapse  back  into  the 
settled  ways  of  the  old  establishment.     Under  the  leader- 
ship of  Thomas  Charles,  and  a  few  other  noble  spirits, 
they   chose    the    former    alternative.     Having    already 
demonstrated  that  Episcopal  ordination  was  not  essential 
to  effective  preaching,  the  Quarterly  Associations,  which 
met  in   181 1   proceeded  to  set  apart  twenty-one  men  to 
the  gospel  ministry  by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of 
presbytery.     By  this  step  the  Rubicon  was  crossed,  and 
the  Calvinistic  Methodist  Church  of  Wales  was  started  on 
her  career  as  a  separate  and  distinct  member  of  the  great 
sisterhood  of  churches.     The  prosperity  which  has  at- 


230     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

tended  her  labors  since  that  date,  the  healthful  growth  in 
membership,  and  the  wide  expansion  of  her  activities 
abundantly  attest  the  wisdom  of  the  step. 

The  Organization  Completed. — The  germ  of  the 
church's  polity  was  in  the  societies  which  were  formed 
in  each  parish.  These  societies  met  weekly  for  edifica- 
tion under  the  lead  of  their  minister  or  elders.  To  these 
was  added  a  monthly  meeting,  made  up  of  representa- 
tives from  the  parish  societies.  As  the  societies  increased, 
the  number  of  monthly  meetings  was  increased,  and  to 
each  monthly  meeting  was  assigned  the  supervision  of  a 
certain  number  of  societies.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years  two  Quarterly  Associations  were  added,  one  of 
which  had  Episcopal  power  over  South  Wales  and  the 
other  over  North  Wales.  It  was  not  till  1864  that  unity 
and  completeness  were  given  to  the  organization  by  add- 
ing a  General  Assembly.  While  the  polity  is  clearly 
based  on  Presbyterian  principles,  it  has  certain  marked 
peculiarities  due  to  the  fact  that  the  church  is  purely  an 
indigenous  growth.  It  did  not  spring  from  any  seed 
brought  from  a  foreign  source,  nor  has  it  grown  up  under 
a  culture  derived  from  a  foreign  source.  It  was  born  in 
the  convictions  of  Welsh  hearts ;  its  Presbyterian  prin- 
ciples have  been  derived  direct  from  the  Bible,  and  have 
been  framed  into  a  system  gradually  as  exigencies  arose. 
No  doubt  the  system  will  receive  some  further  modifica- 
tions in  the  hght  of  growing  experience;  and  as  the 
church  comes  into  closer  affiliation  with  other  churches 
of  like  faith  and  order,  its  polity  will  likely  be  brought 
into  closer  conformity  with  the  prevalent  type  of  Presby- 
terianism. 

Its   ''  Rules    of  Discipline,   or   General    Principles    of 
Church  Government"  were  published  in  1801  ;  and  in 


ENGLAND  AND  WALES  231 

1823,  it  adopted  a  Confession  of  Faith  of  forty-four 
chapters,  setting  forth  a  distinctly  Calvinistic  system  of 
doctrine.  It  carries  on  a  home  mission  work  in  the 
border  counties  of  England  ;  and  a  foreign  mission  work 
in  India.  It  has  two  colleges  for  training  preachers,  one 
at  Bala,  the  other  at  Trevecca.  More  than  160,000  com- 
municants have  been  gathered  into  its  1,137  churches. 


CHAPTER  IX 
THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 

Presbyterianism  in  the  United  States  is  divided  into 
thirteen  distinct  organizations.  Several  of  these  are  de- 
scended from  the  same  ancestral  stock,  and  the  family 
likeness  is  very  close.  It  requires  continual  practice  in 
dialectical  skill  to  find  reasons  for  their  remaining  apart. 
A  few  years  without  discussion,  and  the  members  would 
lose  sight  of  the  marks  that  discriminate  one  from  the 

other. 

In  order  to  clearness  it  is  necessary  to  trace  the  history 
of  each  separately.  This  chapter  will  be  devoted  to  the 
largest  and  the  most  influential  of  them  all.  Its  official 
title  is,  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America. 

The  Manifoldness  of  Its  Sources.— An  interesting 
feature  of  this  Church  is  the  number  of  sources  from 
which  its  original  material  was  derived.  In  this  respect 
it  is  like  the  Republic,  of  which  it  forms  a  part.  On 
these  shores  the  oppressed  of  all  lands  found  a  refuge  ; 
and  adventurers  from  all  lands  found  an  attraction. 
When  once  here,  the  mixed  peoples,  bound  together  by 
common  interests  and  a  common  destiny,  coalesced  into 
one  government.  By  interminglings  and  intermarriages, 
and  through  the  molding  influence  of  common  institu- 
tions, they  have  become  assimilated,  in  large  measure,  to 
a  common  type.  In  like  manner,  the  manifold  varieties 
of  Presbyterianism,  constituting  the  original  material  of 

232 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  233 

the  Church,  whose  history  we  are  now  to  trace,  have  be- 
come blended  into  a  type  of  Prcsbyterianism,  pecuHar  to 
itself.  England,  France,  Scotland,  Ireland,  Wales  and 
Germany,  all  contributed  in  different  proportions  to  the 
common  stock ;  but  these  distinctive  national  traits  have 
long  since  become  merged  into  one  fairly  homogeneous 
whole. 

Presbyterianism  Among  the  Puritans. — A  goodly 
number  of  the  Puritans  who  settled  New  England  were 
Presbyterians.  The  first,  however,  to  plant  a  colony 
were  Independents.  These  were  the  Pilgrim  Fathers, 
who  came  from  England  by  way  of  Holland,  and  reached 
Plymouth  Rock  in  the  Mayflozver  \w  1620.  Eight  years 
later  a  much  larger  body  landed  at  Salem.  The  two  lit- 
tle colonies  were  composed  of  men  of  the  same  blood, 
from  the  same  land,  and  substantially  of  the  same  faith. 
The  only  difference  was  that  the  colonists  settled  at 
Salem  had  not  carried  their  antagonism  to  the  Church 
of  England  to  the  point  of  separation.  They  had  lived, 
up  to  the  time  of  their  leaving  England,  in  the  com- 
munion of  the  Episcopal  Church.  The  preachers  who 
came  over  with  the  first  Puritan  colonists  were  in  orders 
in  the  Church  of  England ;  and  while  alienated  from 
Archbishop  Laud  and  his  school,  they  were  proud  to 
claim  the  English  Establishment  as  their  mother  church. 
"  We  do  not  go  to  New  England,"  they  said,  "  as  sepa- 
ratists from  the  Church  of  England,  though  we  cannot  but 
separate  from  the  corruptions  of  it ;  but  we  go  to  prac- 
tice the  positive  part  of  church  reformation,  and  to  prop- 
agate the  gospel  in  America."  But  when  they  came  to 
organize  their  church  in  the  new  world,  they  reformed 
away  all  the  Episcopal  features. 

The  little  handful  of  separatists,  who  formed  the  colony 


234     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

of  Plymouth  Rock,  exercised  a  marked  influence  over  the 
colony  at  Salem.  By  a  little  brotherly  intercourse,  and 
interchange  of  religious  views,  it  became  evident  that  the 
Puritans,  who  came  direct  from  England,  held  virtually 
the  same  views  with  the  Pilgrims,  who  came  by  way  of 
Holland.  The  result  was  that  the  churches  in  both  colo- 
nies were  fashioned  on  the  same  general  principles. 
These  churches  were  not  purely  Congregational,  nor 
purely  Presbyterian,  but  represented  "  a  Congregation- 
alized  Presbyterianism,  or  a  Presbyterianized  Congrega- 
tionalism." The  Presbyterian  elements  grew  stronger 
with  the  coming  of  fresh  colonists.  The  churches  of 
Connecticut  were  popularly  known  as  Presbyterian.  But 
in  the  end  the  Congregational  elements  largely  prevailed, 
and  with  a  few  exceptions  only  so  much  of  the  Puritan 
Presbyterianism  as  drifted  south  and  west  of  New  England 
became  permanently  a  part  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 

The  Beginning  of  Organized  Presbyterianism.— 
While  certain  Presbyterian  principles  were  embodied  in  the 
church  life  of  New  England,  yet  we  must  look  elsewhere 
for  the  tap  root  of  the  great  Presbyterian  tree.  Some  find 
it  in  Maryland  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Rehoboth  Church  claims  to  be  the  first-born 
of  American  Presbyterian  churches,  though  the  claim  is 
contested.  It  was  organized  about  the  year  1 684, and  prob- 
ably by  Francis  Makemie,  who  is,  perhaps,  rightly  called  the 
"  Father  of  American  Presbyterianism."  Two  Presby- 
terian preachers,  Francis  Doughty  and  Matthew  Hill  had 
previously  sown  good  Presbyterian  seed  in  Maryland  and 
parts  of  Virginia.  Both  of  these  were  nonconformist  min- 
isters from  England,  exiles  for  conscience'  sake ;  and  al- 
though much  obscurity  rests  upon  their  labors,  it  is  evident 
from  what  information  remains  to  us  that  they  were  the  real 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  235 

pioneers,  and  faithful  seed-sowers  of  Presbyterianism  in 
the  middle  colonies. 

Francis  Makemie.— There  was  needed  a  man  of  stron^^ 
personality,  of  sagacity,  and  of  good  executive  ability  to 
gather  the  scattered  adherents  of  Presbyterianism  into 
organized  bodies.  This  need  was  supplied  by  P^rancis 
Makemie.  He  was  born  in  Ireland,  educated  in  Scotland, 
and  sent  out  as  a  missionary  by  the  Presbytery  of  Lag- 
gan  in  1 681,  to  labor  in  the  Barbadoes  and  in  the  Ameri- 
can colonies.  After  laboring  for  awhile  in  the  Barbadoes 
he  came  to  Maryland  in  1684,  and  began  his  arduous  and 
fruitful  ministry.  He  traversed  the  country  from  Massa- 
chusetts to  South  Carolina,  preaching  as  opportunity 
permitted,  acquainting  himself  with  the  condition  of  the 
people,  and  striving  to  supply  them  with  the  gospel.  To 
this  end  he  wrote  urgent  appeals  to  Boston  and  London ; 
these  proving  unavailing,  he  crossed  the  ocean  and  laid 
the  matter  before  an  association  of  ministers  in  London 
— an  association  composed  of  both  Presbyterians  and 
Independents.  This  association  showed  its  interest  by 
furnishing  money  for  the  support  of  missionaries ;  and 
thus  enabled  him  to  persuade  two  ministers,  John 
Hampton  and  George  McNish  to  return  with  him. 

Difficulties  of  the  Pioneers. — The  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  these  foundation-layers  were  neither  few  nor  insig- 
nificant. The  country  was  sparsely  settled ;  the  people 
poor;  social  and  political  life  in  a  fluid  state;  and  in 
many  places  the  government  was  unfriendly.  The  Epis- 
copal Church  was  established  by  law  in  the  colonies  of 
New  York,  Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas ;  and  also  in 
Maryland,  after  William  and  Mary  came  to  the  English 
throne  in  1688,  The  early  preachers  had  to  endure  not 
only  the  hardships  and  self-denials  incident  to  the  new- 


236     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

ness  and  unsettled  condition  of  the  colonies,  but  they 
were  subjected  to  more  or  less  of  persecution  from  the 
hands  of  the  same  church  that  had  driven  them  and  their 
people  from  their  homes  in  the  old  world.  Makemie 
and  Hampton  were  arrested,  and  confined  in  prison  for 
two  months  in  New  York  "  for  taking  it  upon  them- 
selves to  preach  in  a  private  house,  without  having  ob- 
tained any  license  for  so  doing."  When  brought  to 
trial  they  were  acquitted;  but  Makemie  was  unjustly 
made  to  pay  a  heavy  bill  of  costs.  In  Virginia  it  was 
difficult  for  "  dissenting "  ministers  to  secure  license  to 
preach,  and  they  and  their  people  were  heavily  taxed  to 
support  the  Established  Church.  The  same  state  of  af- 
fairs prevailed  in  South  Carolina,  where  those  who  did 
not  conform  to  Episcopacy  were  disfranchised.  Under 
these  manifold  adversities,  the  growth  of  early  Presby- 
terianism  was  very  slow  ;  but  it  did  grow,  and  by  the 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century  several  congregations 
had  been  formed  in  Virginia,  Maryland,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania  and  New  York. 

Organization  of  the  First  Presbytery. — The  first  leaf 
of  the  records  of  the  first  presbytery  is  lost,  but  as  Dr. 
Roberts  has  shown,  it  must  have  been  organized  at  Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.,  in  1706.  The  record  begins  with  the 
minutes  of  a  meeting  held  at  Freehold,  New  Jersey,  De- 
cember, 27,  1706,  for  the  ordination  of  Mr.  John  Boyd. 
The  number  of  ministers  composing  the  presbytery  at  the 
time  was  seven.  By  the  ordination  of  Mr.  Boyd,  the 
number  was  increased  to  eight.  All  of  these,  except  one, 
were  foreign  born,  and  all  except  two  were  ordained  to 
the  ministry  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  only  one  born 
in  America  was  Jedediah  Andrews,  pastor  of  the  church 
in  Philadelphia.    He  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  and  edu- 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  237 

cated  at  Harvard  College.  He  went  to  riiiladclphia  in 
1698,  was  ordained  in  1701,  and  by  dint  of  persevering 
efforts  gathered  a  feeble  congregation  of  very  heter- 
ogeneous elements.  A  new  ♦•  meeting  house  "  was  built 
for  him  in  1705,  and  in  that  new  house  the  first  pres- 
bytery, the  germ  of  the  great  Presbyterian  Church,  was 
organized. 

Inasmuch  as  seven  of  the  eight  ministers,  who  com- 
posed the  first  presbytery,  were  from  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land, it  may  be  presumed  that  they  meant  to  establish  a 
church  in  all  essentials  like  the  churches  from  which 
they  had  come.  While  there  is  no  evidence  that  they 
required  subscription  to  any  standard  of  orthodoxy,  the 
records  of  their  proceedings  make  it  perfectly  manifest 
that  as  to  doctrine,  they  were  all  Calvinists,  and  as  to 
polity,  they  were  all  genuinely  Presbyterian.  Yet  this 
fact  did  not  prevent  their  maintaining  the  closest  rela- 
tions w^ith  the  churches  of  New  England.  They  appealed 
as  earnestly  to  Boston  for  ministers  as  to  London,  Glas- 
gow, or  Dublin.  The  Boston  ministers  responded  with 
true  Christian  sympathy,  and  did  what  they  could  to 
supply  their  need.  While  the  Presbyterianism  of  the 
founders  was  pure  and  thoroughgoing,  it  was  neither 
over-rigid,  nor  suspicious. 

Organization  of  the  First  Synod.— After  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  presbytery,  the  Church  grew  with  considerable 
rapidity,  due  mainly  to  constant  immigration  of  both  min- 
isters and  members  from  abroad.  Notwithstanding  sev- 
eral deaths,  by  the  year  17 16  the  presbytery  contained 
seventeen  ministers.  As  these  were  scattered  over  a 
wide  territory,  and  travel  was  attended  with  difficulty,  it 
was  deemed  advisable  to  break  up  the  one  presbytery 
into  four.     The  names  of  these  four  presbyteries  were 


238     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Philadelphia,  Newcastle,  Snowhill  and  Long  Island.  On 
the  17th  of  September,  1717,  the  members  of  three  of 
these  presbyteries  met  in  Philadelphia  and  organized  the 
first  synod.  Of  the  seventeen  members,  two  were  from 
New  England,  two  were  from  Wales,  one  was  from  Eng- 
land, and  the  remaining  twelve  were  from  Scotland  and 
Ireland.  Obviously  the  Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish  were 
able  to  have  everything  their  own  way,  and  no  doubt 
their  way  was  the  way  of  their  mother  churches  across 
the  waters.  It  is  further  obvious,  however,  that  this  way 
was  perfectly  agreeable  to  all  parties.  There  was  but  one 
type  of  doctrine,  and  the  working  of  a  simple,  but  thor- 
oughgoing Presbyterian  polity  produced  no  friction. 

Need  of  a  Doctrinal  Standard. — Up  to  the  year  1729, 
the  synod  required  no  formal  subscription  to  any  stand- 
ard of  doctrine.  The  need  for  this  had  not  been  felt,  in- 
asmuch as  the  ministers  from  across  the  waters  came 
from  churches  whose  orthodoxy  was  unmistakable,  and 
those  from  New  England  were  likewise  from  a  church, 
which  up  to  this  date,  had  been  solidly  Calvinistic.  But 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  serious  doc- 
trinal laxity  began  to  manifest  itself  in  Scotland.  From 
there  it  passed  to  Ireland  through  the  ministers  of  the 
Irish  Church  who  were  educated  at  the  Scotch  univer- 
sities. In  1 7 19,  the  New  Light  controversy  arose  in 
Ireland,  led  by  the  Rev.  John  Abernethy.  It  was  a  revolt 
against  creed-subscription  on  the  ground  that  to  require 
such  subscription  was  a  sin  against  personal  liberty,  and 
that  sincerity  of  belief  should  be  accepted  in  lieu  of 
any  creedal  profession.  This  movement  spread,  and  gave 
the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  no  little  trouble 
through  a  period  of  several  years.  It  opened  the  door 
for  the   introduction  of  many  doctrinal  errors,  especially 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  239 

in  the  direction  of  Arminianism,  Arianism  and  Socin- 
ianism.  As  the  Church  in  this  country  continued  to 
look  to  Scotland  and  Ireland  as  the  principal  source  of 
ministerial  supply,  grave  alarm  was  felt.  The  fountain 
corrupted,  the  stream  must  inevitably  become  tainted. 

The  Adopting  Act.— Apprehension  first  took  practical 
shape  in  the  Presbytery  of  New  Castle,  which  began  as 
early  as  1724  to  require  its  candidates  for  the  ministry  to 
subscribe  the  Confession  of  Faith.  Very  soon  thereafter, 
the  matter  was  called  to  the  attention  of  the  synod  by  a 
member  of  this  presbytery,  the  Rev.  John  Thompson.  It 
was  carefully  considered  by  the  synod,  and  the  result 
was  the  following  declaration  : — 

"Although  the  synod  do  not  claim,  or  pretend  to 
any  authority  of  imposing  our  faith  upon  other  men's 
consciences,  but  do  profess  our  just  dissatisfaction  with, 
and  abhorrence  of,  such  impositions,  and  do  utterly 
disclaim  all  legislative  power  and  authority  in  the 
Church,  being  willing  to  receive  one  another  as  Christ 
has  received  us  to  the  glory  of  God,  and  admit  to  fel- 
lowship in  sacred  ordinances  all  such  as  we  have  ground 
to  believe  Christ  will  at  last  admit  into  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  ;  yet  we  are  undoubtedly  obliged  to  take 
care  that  the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints  be  kept 
pure  and  uncorrupt  among  us  and  so  handed  down  to 
our  posterity.  And  do,  therefore,  agree  that  all  the 
ministers  of  this  synod,  or  that  shall  hereafter  be  ad- 
mitted into  this  synod,  shall  declare  their  agreement  in, 
and  approbation  of,  the  Confession  of  Faith,  with  the 
Larger  and  Shorter  Catechisms  of  the  Assembly  of  Di- 
vines at  Westminster,  as  being  in  all  essential  and  neces- 
sary articles  good  forms  of  sound  words  and  S}^stems  of 
Christian  doctrine,  and  do  also  adopt  the  said  Confession 


240     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

and  Catechisms  as  the  confession  of  our  faith.  And  we 
do  also  agree  that  all  the  presbyteries  within  our  bounds 
shall  always  take  care  not  to  admit  any  candidate  of  the 
ministry  into  the  exercise  of  the  sacred  functions,  but 
what  declares  his  agreement  in  opinion  with  all  the  essen- 
tial and  necessary  articles  of  said  Confession,  either 
by  subscribing  the  said  Confession  of  Faith  and  Cat- 
echisms, or  by  a  verbal  declaration  of  his  assent 
thereto,  as  such  minister  or  candidate  shall  think  best. 
And  in  case  any  minister  of  this  synod,  or  any  candidate 
for  the  ministry,  shall  have  any  scruple  with  respect  to 
any  article  or  articles  of  said  Confession  or  Catechisms, 
he  shall,  at  the  time  of  his  making  said  declaration,  de- 
clare his  sentiments  to  the  presbytery  or  synod,  who 
shall,  notwithstanding,  admit  him  to  the  exercise  of  the 
ministry  within  our  bounds,  and  to  ministerial  commun- 
ion, if  the  synod  or  presbytery  shall  judge  his  scruple  or 
mistake  to  be  only  about  articles  not  essential  and  neces- 
sary in  doctrine,  worship,  or  government.  But  if  the 
synod,  or  presbytery,  shall  judge  such  ministers  or  can- 
didates erroneous  in  essential  and  necessary  articles  of 
faith,  the  synod  or  presbytery  shall  declare  them  inca- 
pable of  communion  with  them.  And  the  synod  do 
solemnly  agree  that  none  of  us  will  traduce  or  use  any 
opprobrious  terms  of  those  that  differ  from  us  in  these 
extra-essential  and  not  necessary  points  of  doctrine,  but 
treat  them  with  the  same  friendship,  kindness  and  broth- 
erly love  as  if  they  had  not  differed  from  us  in  such 
sentiments," 

Significance  of  this  Act. — This  document,  known  as 
the  Adopting  Act  of  1729,  reflects  great  credit  on  both 
the  heads  and  hearts  of  those  who  framed,  and  those  who 
approved,    it.     The    members     of    the  synod     had   on 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OK  AMERICA  241 

scruples  except  touching  the  articles  in  the  Form  of  Gov- 
ernment, defining  the  duties  of  the  civil  magistrate. 
Having  expressed  these  scruples  they  signed  the  Confes- 
sion of  Faith  and  Catechisms,  and  "  unanimously  agreed 
in  giving  thanks  to  God  in  solemn  prayer  and  praise." 
There  has  been  no  greater  day  in  the  history  of  the 
Church  than  that  day  when  it  flung  this  banner  to  the 
breeze,  and  proclaimed  itself  a  witness-bearing  Church. 
By  these  presents,  all  men  knew  what  this  Church, 
destined  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  forces  in  the  new 
world,  stood  for  ;  what  it  proposed  to  contend  for,  and  if 
need  be  die  for.  The  Adopting  Act  stamped  it  as  a 
Confessional  Church  and  prepared  it  for  a  glorious  war- 
fare in  behalf  of  truth  and  righteousness. 

''The  Great  Awakening."— Only  a  few  years  elapsed, 
when  the  Spirit  of  God  came  upon  the  churches  in 
blessed  reviving  power.  The  beginning  is  usually  traced 
to  the  fervent  ministry  of  Jacob  Frelinghuysen,  pastor 
of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  at  Raritan,  N.  J. 
Independently  and  almost  simultaneously,  showers  of 
blessing  accompanied  the  preaching  of  Jonathan  Edwards 
in  New  England.  About  this  time,  George  Whitefield 
made  his  first  visit  to  America,  and  preaching  to  great 
crowds  in  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  elsewhere,  gave 
a  mighty  impulse  to  the  movement.  In  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  the  Tennents  threw  themselves  heart  and  soul, 
into  the  revival,  and  soon  Gilbert  Tennent,  quickened 
into  fiery  zeal  through  the  ministry  of  F^relinghuysen, 
attained  a  position,  second  only  to  that  of  Whitefield,  as 
a  preacher  of  thrilling  and  persuasive  oratory.  The 
revival  spread  throughout  the  country,  growing  in 
power,  but  developing  certain  features  which  gave  rise 
to   bitter   controversies   and    long-continued    alienations. 


242     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Many  looked  on  the  whole  movement  with  grave 
suspicion,  as  being  merely  an  outburst  of  emotionalism. 
They  held  aloof,  and  gave  free  expression  to  their  ap- 
prehensions. Some  of  the  leaders  of  the  movement  had 
more  zeal  than  discretion.  They  regarded  all  want  of 
sympathy  with  the  revival  as  due  to  spiritual  deadness. 
They  invaded  the  parishes  of  those  ministers  who  were 
in  opposition,  held  meetings  and  won  away  the  people 
from  their  pastors.  Gilbert  Tennent  was  especially 
violent,  and  went  so  far  as  to  preach  a  sermon  on  "  An 
Unconverted  Ministry,"  aimed  at  the  adversaries  of  the 
revival. 

The  Division  of  the  Synod  in  1741. — In  a  few  years 
the  two  parties  had  been  driven  by  their  fierce  an- 
tagonisms so  far  apart  as  to  make  it  impossible  for 
them  to  meet  peaceably  in  the  courts  of  the  Church. 
They  were  labeled  with  party  names, — Old  Side  and 
New  Side.  The  New  Side  had  charged  the  Old  Side 
with  being  graceless,  had  invaded  their  congregations, 
divided  and  alienated  them,  and  in  their  zeal  to  promote 
and  extend  the  revival,  they  had  introduced  candidates 
into  the  ministry  in  opposition  to  the  rules  previously 
adopted  by  the  synod  for  testing  their  qualifications. 
When  the  synod  met  in  1741,  the  Old  Side,  led  by 
Robert  Cross,  adopted  a  protest  against  these  alleged 
antipresbyterial,  antiscriptural,  and  divisive  methods.  In 
this  protest  it  was  declared  that  those,  against  whom  it 
was  aimed,  were  not  entitled  to  sit  in  the  synod.  The 
protest  was  therefore  an  act  of  exclusion,  and  when  it 
was  adopted  by  the  majority,  there  was  nothing  for  the 
minority  to  do  but  to  withdraw.  This  they  did  in  the 
midst  of  a  scene  of  stormy  altercation. 

Organization  of  Synod  of  Nev^  York. — Not  a  member 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  243 

of  the  Presbytery  of  New  York  was  present,  possibly 
absenting  themselves  intentionally  because  not  willing  to 
take  sides  with  either  party.  They  sympathized  with 
the  protest  of  the  Old  Side  in  so  far  as  it  was  merely  a 
protest  against  the  unseemly  and  questionable  beha\'ior 
of  their  opponents  ;  but  they  did  not  approve  of  it  as  an 
act  of  exclusion.  For  a  time  they  tried  to  mediate  be- 
tween the  belligerent  parties.  Failing  to  reconcile  them, 
they  cast  in  their  lot  with  the  New  Side,  not,  however, 
until  after  they  had  secured  certain  declarations  and  con- 
cessions from  them.  The  New  Side,  thus  strengthened, 
organized,  in  1745,  the  Synod  of  New  York.  There 
were  now  two  distinct  Presbyterian  churches,  occupying 
in  part  the  same  ground,  and  rivals  for  the  same  con- 
stituency. They  were  divided,  not  on  questions  of 
doctrine,  or  poHty,  but  on  questions  deeply  affecting 
Christian  life,  and  the  work  of  propagandism.  The  one 
stood  for  a  high  and  inflexible  standard  of  education, 
and  a  rigid  conservatism  in  forms  of  worship  and 
methods  of  evangelization ;  the  other  emphasized  ex- 
perimental piety,  and  in  worship  permitted  a  wide 
latitude  to  emotionahsm. 

Work  of  the  Synod  of  New  York.— At  the  time  of 
the  unhappy  breach,  numerically  the  two  parties  were 
very  nearly  equal,  the  Synod  of  Philadelphia  having 
twenty-six  ministers,  and  the  Synod  of  New  York 
twenty -two.  As  to  growth,  their  histories  during  the 
next  twelve  years  were  vastly  different.  The  Synod  of 
New  York,  zealous  in  its  missionary  spirit,  and  freely 
using  revival  methods,  bounded  forward  with  remarkable 
rapidity.  It  put  forth  strenuous  and  successful  efforts 
to  give  the  gospel  to  the  frontier  settlements  in  Virginia 
and   North   Carolina.     Its  greatest  achievement   in   this 


244     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

direction  was  sending  Samuel  Davies  to  Hanover, 
Virginia,  immediately  on  his  ordination  to  the  ministry 
in  1747. 

Dissenters  in  Virginia. — His  field  of  labor  had  been 
prepared  for  him  by  a  marvelous  providence  in  connec- 
tion with  Morris'  Reading  House.  A  little  band  of 
Christians  had  drawn  away  from  their  parish  church  be- 
cause their  souls  were  not  fed ;  and  they  were  under- 
taking to  care  for  themselves  by  meeting  together  on  the 
Sabbath  and  reading  devotional  books.  Soon  they  were 
summoned  before  the  governor  and  council.  On  their 
way  to  obey  the  summons,  they  happened  on  a  copy  of  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith.  It  was  to  them  a  strange 
book,  but  on  examination,  they  found  that  it  fittingly 
expressed  their  own  faith.  Reaching  Williamsburg,  they 
presented  this  book  to  Governor  Gooch  as  their  creed. 
The  governor,  being  a  Scotchman  and  therefore  ac- 
quainted with  the  Confession  of  Faith,  had  no  trouble  in 
placing  the  culprits.  He  told  them  they  were  Presby- 
terians and  dismissed  them  with  a  caution  not  to  create 
disturbance.  Shortly  after  this  they  had  the  privilege  of 
hearing  a  sermon  from  the  Rev.  William  Robinson,  the  first 
Presbyterian  preacher  to  visit  Hanover  County.  On  his 
leaving  them,  they  constrained  Robinson  to  accept  a  gift 
of  money.  With  this,  he  aided  young  Davies  in  securing 
an  education,  and  four  years  later,  their  gift  of  money  re- 
turned to  them  in  the  shape  of  their  first  pastor,  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Davies,  one  of  the  greatest  blessings  that  God 
has  ever  given  to  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  America. 

Mission  Work  in  North  Carolina. — The  Synod  of 
New  York  extended  its  evangelizing  labors  into  North 
Carolina,  as  far  south  as  Sugar  Creek  where  Alexander 
Craighead  settled  in  1755,  and  began  to  educate  the  hardy 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  245 

Scotch-Irish  in  those  principles  of  rehgious  and  civil  hb- 
erty  which  found  expression,  twenty  years  later,  in  the 
Mecklenburg  Declaration  of  Independence.  In  this  same 
year,  1755,  the  Presbytery  of  Hanover  was  organized, and 
included  all  the  ministers  south  of  the  Potomac  River, 
except  one  or  two  in  the  valley  of  Virginia  who  adhered 
to  the  Synod  of  Philadelphia. 

During  this  period  of  separation  the  Synod  of  New 
York  was  also  active  in  mission  work  among  the  Indians. 
To  this  work  it  set  apart,  among  others,  that  most  apos- 
tolic man,  David  Brainerd,  whose  name  will  live  forever 
in  the  missionary  annals  of  the  Church  side  by  side  with 
that  of  the  saintly  Elliot. 

Work  of  the  Synod  of  Philadelphia. — In  the  mean- 
time, the  Synod  of  Philadelphia  was  at  a  standstill.  While 
rightly  protesting  against  the  extremes  to  which  the 
New  Side  carried  their  revival  measures,  they  swung 
too  far  to  the  other  extreme.  They  alienated  all  those 
whose  hearts  were  earnestly  set  on  evangelical  aggres- 
siveness, and  no  revivals  of  any  marked  power  attended 
their  labors.  A  want  of  revivals  meant  a  dearth  of  can- 
didates for  the  ministry.  The  stream  of  immigration 
from  Scotland  and  Ireland  had  well-nigh  ceased  to  flow. 
Consequently  their  ministerial  force  dwindled,  instead  of 
increasing.  There  were  accessions,  but  these  did  not 
keep  pace  with  the  losses  by  death.  Obviously  a  church 
cannot  prosper  with  a  constantly  diminishing  roll  of  min- 
isters. While,  therefore,  the  Synod  of  Philadelphia  is  en- 
titled to  credit  for  a  noble  testimony  against  fanaticism, 
its  history  is  a  warning  against  undue  suspicion  of  re- 
vivals. 

Union  of  Synods  in  1758. — No  sooner  had  the  separa- 
tion taken  place,  than  lovers  of  peace  began  to  seek  for  a 


246     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

reconciliation.  Those  foremost  in  this  work  were  mem- 
bers of  the  Presbytery  of  New  York.  They  thought  both 
parties  in  the  conflict  that  led  to  separation  were  in  the 
wrong,  and  succeeded  in  drawing  from  the  New  Side 
confession  of  wrongdoing.  Year  after  year  they  pro- 
posed plans  for  reunion.  It  was  not  easy  to  overcome 
the  hngering  distrust  of  the  Old  Side.  But,  by  and  by, 
death  removed  some  of  the  older  men  on  either  side ; 
time  softened  asperities,  and  grace  overcame  prejudices. 
Each  side  made  some  concessions,  and  in  1758  they 
found  a  platform  on  which  both  could  stand  and  be  at 
peace. 

The  Reunion  Platform.— This  platform  reaffirmed 
their  common  adherence  to  the  Confession  of  Faith  and 
the  Catechisms  ''  as  an  orthodox  and  excellent  system  of 
Christian  doctrine,  founded  on  the  word  of  God,"  and  also 
their  adherence  to  the  "  plan  of  worship,  government  and 
discipline  contained  in  the  Westminster  Directory,  strictly 
enjoining  it  upon  all  our  members  and  probationers  for 
the  ministry,  that  they  preach  and  teach  according  to  the 
form  of  sound  words  in  said  confession  and  catechisms, 
and  avoid  and  oppose  all  errors  contrary  thereto."  Very 
fortunately  for  the  future  peace  of  the  Church  the  union 
was  brought  about  without  the  slightest  compromise  in 
the  matter  of  doctrine  or  discipline.  Presbyterians  can 
never  live  together  comfortably  while  differing  in  these 
respects. 

Some  Early  Educational  Institutions.— The  Presby- 
terian Church  from  the  day  of  its  birth  was  insistent  in 
its  demand  for  an  educated  ministry.  Its  first  preachers, 
most  of  whom  came  from  the  old  world,  were  educated 
principally  at  the  Scotch  universities.  Those  from  New 
England  were  degree  men  from  Harvard  and  Yale. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  247 

The  ''  Log  College."— At  a  very  early  day,  it  was  felt 
that  the  Church  should  take  steps  to  do  its  own  educating. 
The  pioneer  in  this  work  was  the  Rev.  William  Tennent, 
Sr.  When  he  came  to  America  in  1716,  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  of  Ireland ;  but  he  changed  his 
ecclesiastical  relations,  and  joined  the  Synod  of  Philadel- 
phia, in  September,  17 18.  In  1726  he  settled  at 
Neshaminy,  Pa.,  and  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  two  there- 
after opened  a  school  with  the  avowed  object  of  training 
up  a  pious  and  learned  ministry.  This  school  became 
famous  as  the  "  Log  College."  It  was  honored  to  do  a 
noble  and  much  needed  work  for  the  Church.  Several 
of  its  alumni  were  among  the  most  eminent  and  useful 
ministers  of  the  day.  The  older  members  of  the  synod 
were  not  disposed,  however,  to  accord  to  it  due  credit, 
showing  an  unwillingness  to  receive  its  credentials  as  a 
guarantee  of  scholarship.  This  constituted  one  of  the 
several  grounds  of  contention  between  the  Old  Side  and 
the  New  Side  at  the  time  of  the  disruption  in  1741. 

Princeton  College. — Immediately  on  the  division  of 
the  synod,  both  bodies  set  about  establishing  schools. 
The  Synod  of  New  York  planted  one  at  Elizabethtown, 
N.  J.,  with  the  Rev.  Jonathan  Dickinson  at  its  head.  A 
charter  was  obtained  for  this  school  in  October,  1746. 
On  the  7th  of  the  next  October,  its  distinguished  presi- 
dent died.  The  school  was  then  removed  to  Newark, 
N.  J.,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  Rev.  Aaron  Burr.  In 
1755,  another  removal  took  place,  this  time  to  Princeton, 
N.  J.,  where  it  still  continues  to  flourish  as  Princeton 
University. 

The  Classical  School  at  Fagg's  Manor,  Pa. — This 
famous  school  was  established  by  the  Rev.  Samuel  Blair 
about  the  year  1740.     He  continued  at  its  head  until  his 


248     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

untimely  death  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-nine  in  175 1. 
His  brother,  the  Rev.  John  Blair  succeeded  him,  both  in 
his  pastorate,  and  in  the  school.  "  At  this  school  were 
trained  several  young  men,  who  afterwards  ranked 
among  the  most  prominent  clergymen  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  ;  and  one  at  least,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Davies,  among 
the  greater  lights  of  his  generation."  As  both  the 
Blairs  were  educated  in  the  "  Log  College,"  the  school  at 
Fagg's  Manor  may  properly  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  the 
abundant  fruit  of  that  earlier  institution. 

The  Academy  at  Pequea,  Pa. — About  the  year  1750, 
the  Rev.  Robert  Smith,  D.  D.,  was  settled  over  the  church 
at  Pequea,  Pa.,  and  soon  thereafter  opened  a  school  for 
the  training  of  youth  in  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew 
languages.  The  school  became  famous  for  its  thorough- 
ness, and  quite  a  number  who  obtained  their  classical 
education  there  returned  to  study  theology  under  its  dis- 
tinguished principal.  Three  of  Dr.  Smith's  own  sons, 
who  became  ministers,  owed  their  early  training  to  this 
school.  Two  of  these,  the  Rev.  Samuel  Stanhope  Smith, 
D.  D.,  LL.  D.,  and  the  Rev.  John  Blair  Smith,  D.  D.,  rose 
to  great  distinction  both  as  preachers  and  as  educators. 
It  was  here  also  that  John  McMillan  in  part  was  trained 
for  his  career  of  very  great  usefulness  as  the  "Apostle 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  West."  From  his  log- 
cabin  school  in  Washington  County,  Pa.,  he  sent  forth 
a  great  many  young  men  to  preach  the  gospel,  and  in 
that  log  cabin  laid  the  foundation  of  Washington  and 
Jefferson  College. 

As  Dr.  Smith  was  the  product  of  the  school  at  Fagg's 
Manor,  and  as  that  school  was  the  fruit  of  the  Log  College 
at  Neshaminy,  we  see  the  ever-widening  influence  of  that 
pioneer  undertaking. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  249 

The   Old   Side   School    at   New  London,  Pa. — The 

Synod  of  Philadelphia  in  1744  adopted  as  their  own  a 
school  which  the  Rev.  Francis  Alison  had  established  at 
New  London,  the  year  before.  This  school  was  con- 
tinued by  Mr.  Alison  until  1752,  when  he  removed  to 
Philadelphia.  It  was  justly  celebrated  for  its  high  stand- 
ard of  scholarship,  and  gave  to  both  church  and  state 
some  eminent  men. 

Church  Schools  and  Church  Growth. — The  Synod  of 
New  York  was  much  better  supplied  with  facilities  for 
educating  a  ministry,  and  this  accounts  in  no  small  degree 
for  its  so  far  outstripping  the  other  synod  during  the 
period  of  separation.  Its  twenty-two  ministers  grew  to 
be  seventy-two  in  twelve  years,  while  the  twenty-six  of 
the  Synod  of  Philadelphia  were  reduced  to  twenty-two. 

Early  Churches  in  the  Carolinas. — In  the  closing 
years  of  the  seventeenth  century  and  the  opening  years 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  a  few  Presbyterian  churches 
were  formed  in  and  round  Charleston,  S.  C.  These 
were  formed  out  of  elements  which  had  come  from  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  Ireland  and  France.  By  the  year  1730, 
the  churches  had  become  sufficiently  numerous  for  the 
organization  of  a  presbytery.  Owing  to  its  distance  from 
all  other  bodies  of  organized  Presbyterians,  this  presby- 
tery continued  without  connection  with  a  superior  court 
for  a  great  many  years.  In  1770,  it  made  application  for 
admission  to  the  Synod  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia, 
but  for  some  reason  it  was  not  admitted ;  and  conse- 
quently the  Presbytery  of  South  Carolina  remained  in- 
dependent till  long  after  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Presbyterians  began  to  settle  in  North  Carolina  at  an 
early  period,  but  owing  to  their  scattered  condition,  and 
the  want  of  preachers,  they  were  not  gathered  into  or- 


2^0 


HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


ganizations  until  far  along  in  the  eighteenth  century. 
The  material  of  the  first  churches  was  mainly  Scotch. 
Beginning  with  1729,  these  came  in  increasing  numbers 
through  many  years  and  formed  settlements  mainly  along 
the  Cape  Fear  River.  The  first  minister  to  labor  per- 
manently among  them  was  the  Rev.  James  Campbell,  who 
settled  near  Fayetteville  in  1747.  About  this  time  there 
began  to  pour  in  a  strong  tide  of  Scotch-Irish  immigra- 
tion, which  furnished  the  sturdy  material  out  of  which 
Alexander  Craighead,  Hugh  McAden  and  Henry  Patillo 
organized  churches  that  continue  to  this  day. 

Growth  of  the  Church  from  1758  to  1776. — At  the 
time  of  the  union  of  the  two  synods  in  1758,  the  strength 
of  the  Church,  as  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  consisted 
of  one  hundred  ministers,  two  hundred  congregations  and 
ten  thousand  members.  Its  strength  was  chiefly  in  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  in  which  colonies 
it  was  much  stronger  than  all  the  other  churches  com- 
bined. Congregationalism  held  New  England  almost 
solidly,  while  Episcopacy  maintained  its  ascendency  in 
Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  The  Presbyterian  Church 
continued  to  lengthen  its  cords  and  strengthen  its  stakes 
during  the  years  of  political  agitation  preceding  the  War 
of  Independence.  But  as  this  agitation  became  more 
fierce  and  absorbing,  religious  life  became  more  languid. 

The  Presbytery  of  Hanover  was  reorganized  in  1758, 
so  as  to  include  all  the  ministers  of  both  the  old  synods, 
living  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina.  Those  in  North 
Carolina  were  set  off  in  Orange  Presbytery  in  1770. 
New  presbyteries  were  formed  in  the  meantime  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  York.  The  total  strength  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolutionary 
War  was  represented  by  twelve  presbyteries,  three  hun- 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  251 

dred  churches,  one  hundred  and  forty  ministers,  and  about 
twenty  thousand  members.  At  the  same  period  the 
CongregationaHsts  numbered  seven  hundred  churches; 
the  Baptists  three  hundred  and  eighty  ;  and  the  Episco- 
pahans  three  hundred.  These  four  denominations  far 
outranked  all  others ;  and,  of  the  four,  the  Presbyterians 
were  numerically  the  weakest.  But  in  the  great  colonies 
of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  where  their 
strength  was  largely  concentrated,  the  Presbyterians  were 
much  the  strongest. 

Presbyterians  and  Patriotism. — "  If  my  kingdom  were 
of  this  world,  then  would  my  servants  fight."  Some  per- 
sons think  that  a  history  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  should 
make  no  mention  of  the  part  which  her  members  took  in 
the  struggle  for  independence,  inasmuch  as  it  was  only  as 
citizens,  entitled  to  certain  political  rights,  that  they  were 
justified  in  taking  the  sword.  The  line,  how^ever,  between 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  was  not  then  clearly  drawn,  and 
because  the  Presbyterians,  along  with  other  dissenting 
bodies,  had  suffered  from  the  oppressions  of  a  church 
establishment  they  were  prompt  to  enter  into  a  conflict, 
in  the  issues  of  which  both  civil  and  religious  liberty  were 
involved.  The  testimony  of  an  Episcopal  rector  in 
New  York  City  has  been  frequently  cited  as  showing  the 
unanimity  of  the  Presbyterians  and  the  motives  which 
actuated  them  at  this  crisis  :  "  Although  civil  liberty  was 
the  ostensible  object,  the  bait  was  flung  out  to  catch  the 
populace  at  large  and  engage  them  in  the  rebelHon,  yet 
it  is  now  past  all  doubt  that  an  abolition  of  the  Church  of 
England  was  one  of  the  principal  springs  of  the  dissent- 
ing leaders'  conduct;  and  hence  the  unanimity  of  the 
dissenters  in  this  business.  I  have  it  from  good  authority 
that  the  Presbyterian  ministers,  at  a  synod  w^here  most  of 


252     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

them  in  the  middle  colonies  were  collected,  resolved 
to  support  the  Continental  Congress  in  all  its  measures. 
This  and  this  only  can  account  for  the  uniformity  of 
their  conduct ;  for  I  do  not  know  one  of  them,  nor 
have  I  been  able  after  strict  inquiring,  to  hear  of  any, 
who  did  not  by  preaching  and  every  effort  in  their  power, 
promote  all  the  measures  of  the  Congress  however  ex- 
travagant." Mr.  Bancroft  says  :  "  The  first  voice  publicly 
raised  in  America  to  dissolve  all  connection  with  Great 
Britain  came  not  from  the  Puritans  of  New  England,  nor 
the  Dutch  of  New  York,  nor  the  planters  of  Virginia, 
but  from  the  Scotch-Irish  Presbyterians."  He  refers  to 
such  deliverances  as  that  of  the  convention  which  met  in 
Abingdon,  Virginia,  in  1775,  in  which  the  sturdy  pioneers 
declared :  "  We  are  deliberately  and  resolutely  deter- 
mined never  to  surrender  any  of  our  inestimable  privi- 
leges to  any  power  on  earth  but  at  the  expense  of 
our  hves."  The  Scotch-Irish  of  Mecklenburg  County, 
N.  C,  in  the  same  year  took  still  stronger  ground 
in  the  famous  Mecklenburg  Declaration,  in  which  they 
practically  renounced  the  government  of  Great  Britain. 
In  the  person  of  the  Rev.  John  Witherspoon,  the  Presby- 
terian Church  furnished  one  illustrious  signer  of  the  Dec- 
laration of  Independence  put  forth  by  the  Continental 
Congress,  July  4th,  1776.  It  was  inevitable  that  a 
Church  which  made  itself  so  prominent  in  the  struggle, 
should  have  suffered  much  in  the  death  of  its  members, 
the  breaking  up  of  its  congregations,  and  the  destruction 
of  its  property. 

Organization  of  the  General  Assembly. — The  Church 
soon  rallied  from  the  crippled  condition  into  which  the 
fortunes  of  war  had  brought  it.  The  territory  over 
which  it  spread  extended  from  New  York  to  Georgia. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  253 

Its  highest  court  was  the  Synod  of  New  York  and 
Philadelphia.  This  was  not  a  delegated  body,  but  was 
composed  of  all  the  ministers,  and  one  elder  from  each 
church.  The  difficulty  of  attendance,  now  that  the 
territory  had  grown  so  large,  made  it  advisable  to  divide 
up  the  synod,  and  organize,  as  a  Central  Court,  a  repre- 
sentative assembly.  Accordingly  a  movement  to  this 
end  was  set  on  foot  in  1786  and  consummated  in  1788. 
The  synod  was  divided  into  four ; — viz.,  the  Synod  of 
New  York  and  New  Jersey,  with  four  presbyteries; 
Philadelphia,  with  five  presbyteries ;  Virginia,  with 
four  presbyteries;  and  the  Carolinas,  with  three  pres- 
byteries. These  sixteen  presbyteries  contained  177 
ministers,  in  probationers,  and  419  churches.  The 
synod,  at  this  same  session  in  1788,  revised  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith  and  the  Larger  Catechism  by  strik- 
ing out  those  passages  which  defined  the  relation  of 
Church  and  state,  and  the  powers  of  the  civil  magis- 
trate, conforming  these  standards  to  the  American  idea 
of  the  complete  separation  of  Church  and  state,  and 
the  absolute  independence  of  each  in  its  own  proper 
sphere.  It  then  adopted  all  the  Westminster  symbols, 
thus  revised,  as  the  constitution  of  the  reorganized 
Church  provided  that  they  could  be  amended  only  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  of  the  presbyteries  and  subsequent  enact- 
ment of  the  assembly,  and  then  passed  out  of  exist- 
ence, giving  place  to  the  General  Assembly,  which  met 
for  the  first  time  in  1789. 

Union  with  the  General  Association  of  Connecticut 
in  1801.— The  treaty  between  England  and  France  in 
1763  opened  the  country  west  of  the  AUeghanies  for 
settlement.  Immediately  a  stream  of  emigration  be- 
gan to  pour  across  the  mountains  into  the  region  of  the 


254     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Ohio.  A  few  years  later,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee 
were  filling  up  at  a  rapid  rate.  The  population  of  these 
territories  increased,  during  the  decade  between  1790 
and  1800,  from  one  hundred  thousand  to  three  hundred 
and  twenty  thousand.  Here  then  west  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains,  lay  an  ever-widening  field  for  mis- 
sionary effort.  The  churches  of  all  denominations  felt 
deeply  the  obligation  to  supply  the  destitute  pioneers 
with  the  gospel.  In  order  to  economize  in  men  and 
money  in  the  prosecution  of  their  vast  home  mission 
work,  the  General  Association  of  Connecticut  and  the 
General  Assembly  adopted  a  Plan  of  Union.  By  this 
plan  all  competition  between  the  Congregationalists  and 
the  Presbyterians  was  to  be  avoided.  Either  church 
might  be  served  with  a  pastor  from  the  other,  and  the 
pastor  retain  his  connection  with  his  own  church.  A 
Congregational  Church  with  a  Presbyterian  pastor  con- 
ducted its  internal  affairs  in  its  own  way.  In  case  of 
difference  with  its  pastor,  he  had  the  right  of  appeal  to 
his  presbytery ;  or  if  church  and  pastor  preferred  the 
difference  could  be  referred  to  a  council  composed  of  an 
equal  number  of  Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists. 
The  same  principles  applied  when  the  church  was  Pres- 
byterian and  the  pastor  Congregational.  A  church 
might  be  composed  of  both  Congregationalists  and  Pres- 
byterians. In  such  case,  they  could  intrust  the  govern- 
ment to  a  standing  committee.  This  committee  was 
authorized  to  depute  one  of  its  members  to  represent 
the  church  in  presbytery. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  in  the  practical  working  of  such 
a  plan,  serious  friction  might  be  introduced  into  the 
Presbyterian  machinery.  It  was,  at  best,  a  somewhat 
perilous  experiment. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  255 

It  may  be  proper  to  note  that  at  this  period  much  of 
the  benevolent  work  of  all  the  churches  was  carried  on 
by  voluntary  societies.  These  did  not  owe  their  origin 
to  the  Plan  of  Union.  Quite  a  number  of  the  evangel- 
ical churches  cooperated  in  sustaining  them.  But  this 
method  of  carrying  on  benevolent  work  was  in  har- 
mony with  the  Plan  of  Union,  and  it  increased  the 
embarrassments  which  grew  out  of  this  plan  at  a  later 
date. 

Advantages  of  the  Union  to  Presbyterianism.— 
This  combination  of  forces  worked  well  so  far  as  con- 
cerned aggressive  evangelism.  Under  its  operation 
churches  multiplied  rapidly,  and  the  lion's  share  fell  to 
the  Presbyterians.  The  number  of  communicants  in 
the  year  1800  is  reckoned  at  40,000.  When  the  Plan 
of  Union  was  abrogated  in  1837,  the  number  had  risen 
to  232,000.  It  was  during  this  same  period  that  nearly 
all  the  theological  seminaries  of  the  Church  were 
founded— Princeton  in  181 2;  Auburn,  18 19;  Union, 
Virginia,  1824;  Allegheny,  1827;  Columbia,  S.  C, 
1828;  Lane,  1829;  McCormick,  1830;  Union,  New 
York,  1836.  Of  course,  this  great  and  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  Church  was  not  due  solely,  possibly  not 
even  chiefly,  to  the  Plan  of  Union ;  but  it  could  readily 
be  shown  that  this  contributed  to  it  in  no  small  degree. 
Owing  to  the  union,  nearly  all  the  Puritan  migration 
from  New  England  westward  flowed  into  the  Presby- 
terian Church. 

Disadvantages  of  the  Union.— The  gain  was  not  all 
gain.  The  growth  was  not  altogether  healthy.  The 
Calvinism  of  the  New  England  churches  had  already  be- 
come diluted  with  Hopkinsianism  ;  and  this  was  further 
diluted  by  Emmonsism  and  all  the  other  novelties  that 


256     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

ultimately  made  up  the  "  New  England  Theology."  The 
Plan  of  Union  opened  the  floodgate  for  this  stream  of 
diluted  doctrine  to  debouch  into  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
Along  with  doctrinal  errors  came  also  abnormalities  in 
polity  and  laxity  of  discipline.  It  was  charged  that  many 
gained  admission  to  the  Presbyterian  ministry  without 
subscribing  to  the  Confession  of  Faith,  men  who  knew 
nothing  about  the  polity  of  the  Church,  and  who  set  at 
naught  its  discipHne.  Friends  of  the  old  order  became 
seriously  alarmed.  They  summed  up  doctrinal  defec- 
tions in  sixteen  counts  ;  errors  in  Church  order  in  ten  ;  and 
errors  in  discipline  in  four.  Even  supposing  this  an 
exaggeration,  it  is  evident  that  a  new  and  degenerate 
type  of  Presbyterianism  was  rapidly  developing.  Fric- 
tion sprang  up  between  the  old  and  the  new.  Friction 
gave  rise  to  parties,  and,  by  and  by,  the  whole  Church  was 
converted  into  a  battle  ground. 

Some  Famous  Ecclesiastical  Trials. — With  each 
passing  year  the  hostility  increased  between  the  parties, 
which  came  to  be  known  as  Old  and  New  School. 
The  Old  School  attempted  to  arrest  the  current  of 
evils  that  was  flowing  in  on  them,  by  the  use  of  dis- 
cipline. Several  ecclesiastical  trials  were  instituted. 
The  two  most  noted  were  against  Lyman  Beecher,  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  Lane  Seminary,  and  Albert  Barnes, 
pastor  of  First  Church,  Philadelphia.  Dr.  Beecher  was  ar- 
raigned before  the  Presbytery  of  Cincinnati  in  1835, 
charged  with  holding  and  teaching  Pelagian  and  Ar- 
minian  doctrine  in  respect  to  free  agency,  accountability, 
original  sin,  total  depravity,  regeneration,  and  Christian 
character.  He  was  ably  prosecuted  by  Dr.  J.  L.  Wilson, 
but  was  acquitted  by  a  vote  of  nearly  two  to  one.  The 
case  was  carried  up  to  the  synod,  and  again  he  was  ac- 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  257 

quitted.  Dr.  Wilson  gave  notice  of  complaint  to  the 
General  Assembly,  but  for  some  reason  failed  to  prose- 
cute it  before  that  body. 

Albert  Barnes  was  charged  before  the  Second  Presby- 
tery of  Philadelphia  with  holding  and  propagating  ten 
distinct  errors,  all  of  the  same  general  character  as  those 
charged  against  Beecher.  He  was  prosecuted  by  Dr. 
George  Junkin,  who  failed,  in  the  judgment  of  the  pres- 
bytery, to  make  out  his  case.  He  made  complaint  to 
synod.  This  body  reversed  the  decision  of  the  presby- 
tery, and  suspended  Mr.  Barnes  from  the  ministry.  He 
appealed  to  the  General  Assembly  meeting  in  Pittsburg 
in  1836.  After  eleven  days  of  discussion,  the  assembly 
reversed  the  decision  of  the  synod  and  restored  Mr. 
Barnes  to  the  office  of  the  ministry  by  a  vote  of  145 
to  7^. 

Growing  Strength  of  the  New  School  Party.— By 
this  time  it  became  evident  to  the  Old  School  party  that 
they  could  not  check  the  spread  of  the  sentiments  which 
were  held  by  the  opposite  party,  by  the  ordinary  process 
of  discipline.  The  two  parties  were  too  evenly  divided, 
and  the  New  School  party  had  the  advantage  in  the 
places  of  meeting  of  the  General  Assembly.  Its  almost 
uniform  place  of  meeting  was  in  Philadelphia.  There 
had  been  only  two  exceptions  since  the  year  1799,  and 
on  those  two  occasions  it  had  met  at  Pittsburg.  The 
regions  of  the  Church  most  seriously  affected  by  the  new 
departures  were  central  and  western  New  York  and  Ohio. 
These  regions,  lying  so  convenient  to  Philadelphia  and 
Pittsburg  were  much  more  fully  represented  than  the 
Church  at  large.  Every  year  increased  the  relative 
strength  of  the  New  School. 

The  Division  of  1837,  1838.— When  the  assembly  met 


258     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

in  1837,  it  was  expected  that  the  Old  School  would  take 
very  decided  action,  if  they  found  that  they  had  the  reins 
of  power  in  their  hands.  The  leaders  of  this  party  held  a 
convention  a  few  days  preceding  the  meeting  of  the 
assembly  for  the  purpose  of  formulating  a  method  of 
procedure.  It  was  impossible,  however,  to  decide  in 
advance  how  to  meet  and  surmount  all  the  difficulties 
confronting  them.  On  going  into  the  assembly,  they  put 
forward  more  than  one  measure  which  was  found,  after 
discussion,  to  be  impracticable.  Finally  they  resolved  on 
an  act  of  very  bold  and  unprecedented  surgery.  First, 
they  abrogated  the  Plan  of  Union,  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  unconstitutional ;  second,  they  resolved  that  the  Plan 
of  Union  being  unconstitutional,  all  that  was  done  under 
it  was  unconstitutional ;  third,  they  followed  up  this  reso- 
lution by  cutting  off  four  synods  that  had  become  most 
thoroughly  New  School  views,  and  were  threatening 
the  life  of  the  whole  body.  The  only  motive  that  could 
justify  such  a  drastic  remedy  would  be  that  of  self-preser- 
vation. This  was  in  reality  the  motive ;  for  the  Old 
School,  whether  rightly  or  wrongly,  judged  that  the  pu- 
rity and  efficiency  of  the  whole  Church  were  in  mortal 
peril.  The  four  exscinded  synods  were  the  Western 
Reserve,  Utica,  Geneva  and  Genesee. 

Formation  of  the  New  School  Assembly. — When  the 
assembly  of  1838  was  organized,  the  stated  clerk  omitted 
the  commissioners  of  those  synods  from  the  roll.  This 
led  to  the  formation  of  another  assembly.  The  line  that 
bounded  it  was  not  the  same  as  that  bounding  the  four 
synods  which  had  been  extruded,  but  it  ran  zigzag  in 
every  direction  through  the  Church.  It  included  many, 
especially  in  the  South,  who  had  no  sympathy  with  the 
errors  charged  against  the  four  synods,  but  who  believed 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  259 

the  exscinding  act  to  be  unconstitutional,  and  such  a 
remedy  to  be  worse  than  the  evil  which  it  was  designed 
to  cure.  Of  the  232,000  communicants  at  the  time  of 
the  division,  106,000  went  with  the  New  School, 
and  126,000  remained  with  the  Old.  After  carrying 
property  questions  into  the  civil  courts,  where  conflicting 
decisions  were  rendered,  each  church  retained  control 
of  the  property  which  it  actually  held. 

Deplorable  Consequences  of  Separation. — While  the 
division  of  the  Church  seems  to  have  been  essential  to 
the  preservation  of  its  integrity,  yet  the  necessity  for  di- 
vision must  be  regarded  as  a  serious  blow  to  the  progress 
of  Presbyterianism.  Congregations  were  divided ;  com- 
munities were  divided  ;  even  famihes  were  divided,  and 
the  bitterness  of  strife  took  the  place  of  evangelical  fer- 
vor. Feeble  organizations  were  formed,  in  order  to  per- 
petuate doctrinal  feuds.  Instead  of  an  army,  two 
hundred  thousand  strong,  going  forth  with  united 
strength  to  the  conquest  of  unevangelized  territory  for 
Christ,  the  army  was  split  up  into  innumerable  little  fac- 
tions at  war  with  each  other.  The  energy  that  should 
have  gone  into  missionary  effort  was  expended  by  each 
party  in  trying  to  bring  the  other  under  the  suspicion 
and  contempt  of  the  general  public.  Thus  they  not 
only  hindered  each  other,  but  played  into  the  hands  of 
unfriendly  denominations.  They  furnished  ammunition 
to  the  Methodists  and  Baptists,  who,  taking  advantage  of 
this  internecine  warfare,  preempted  the  territory  which 
by  right  of  inheritance  belonged  to  the  Presbyterians. 
No  church  in  this  country  had  an  equal  opportunity  with 
the  Presbyterian  Church  at  the  opening  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  During  the  first  third  of  the  century  it  in- 
creased sixfold,  outstripping   all  rivals.     But  during  the 


26o     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

next  third  of  the  century  it  scarcely  more  than  doubled ; 
while  it  lost  to  the  other  denominations  perhaps  two 
thirds  of  the  descendants  of  Ulster  Presbyterians. 

Slow  Growth  of  the  New  School  Assembly. — When 
the  Synod  of  Philadelphia  divided  in  1741,  nearly  all  the 
aggressive  vitality  went  with  the  New  Side.  It  was 
otherwise  with  the  division  in  1837.  The  New  School 
continued  to  cooperate  with  the  Congregationalists  under 
the  Plan  of  Union,  but  the  increasing  degeneracy  of  the 
Congregationalists  in  both  doctrine  and  polity  more  and 
more  demonstrated  the  unwisdom  of  such  cooperation. 
Finally  the  Congregationalists  departed  so  far  from  the 
primitive  faith  as  to  be  unwilling  longer  to  affiliate  with 
even  the  very  liberal  ecclesiasticism  represented  by  the 
New  School  Assembly.  Their  National  Convention, 
therefore,  which  met  in  Albany  in  1852  abrogated  the 
Plan  of  Union.  This  was  a  useful  service  to  the  Presby- 
terians, for  the  Plan  of  Union  had  long  been  a  source  of 
weakness  to  them,  crippling  them  in  their  work  of  mis- 
sions both  at  home  and  abroad. 

After  the  division,  the  New  School  Assembly  developed 
in  the  course  of  a  few  years  a  very  intolerant  antislavery 
sentiment.  The  discussions  on  this. subject  in  the  annual 
meetings  became  increasingly  exasperating  to  the  slave- 
holders in  the  South,  and  the  deliverances  increasingly 
stringent.  The  result  was  the  voluntary  withdrawal  of 
nearly  all  the  churches  in  the  South  connected  with  this 
assembly,  and  the  organization,  April  ist,  1858,  of  the 
United  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church. 

Owing  to  these  various  retarding  causes  the  growth  of 
the  New  School  body  was  slow.  Its  roll  of  communi- 
cants contained  only  thirty-two  thousand  more  names  in 
1864  than  it  started  with  in  1838. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  261 

The  Greater  Prosperity  of  the  Old  School  Church. — 

The  Old  School  Assembly  had  a  much  more  rapid  and 
healthy  growth.  It  began  its  separate  career  with  its 
ecclesiastical  machinery  in  good  working  order ;  with  a 
homogeneous  membership,  standing  for  a  distinct  type  of 
doctrine,  and  with  an  earnest  missionary  spirit.  In  the 
South  and  West  it  had  a  fine  field  for  expansion.  Utilizing 
with  commendable  zeal  its  splendid  resources,  and  avail- 
ing itself  of  its  fine  openings  it  grew  from  126,000 
communicants  in  1837  to  290,000  in  i860.  The  coming 
of  the  Civil  War,  of  course,  retarded  its  progress,  and 
caused  the  loss  in  1861  of  nearly  its  entire  southern 
constituency,  amounting  to  about  seventy  thousand 
members. 

Attitude  of  the  Assemblies  Toward  Each  Other 

Up  to  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  there  was  no  evidence 
that  the  two  bodies  were  drawing  sensibly  nearer  to- 
gether. It  is  true  that  the  New  School  Assembly  had 
been  disburdened  of  the  Plan  of  Union,  and  had  come  to 
prefer  its  own  agencies  to  voluntary  societies  in  the  con- 
duct of  home  missions,  education,  and  publication.  But 
it  was  still  in  partnership  with  the  Congregationalists  in 
the  work  of  foreign  missions  ;  it  still  had  a  great  many 
"  Presbygational "  churches,  as  they  were  called,  nonde- 
script organizations  inherited  from  the  Plan  of  Union ; 
above  all,  it  was  still  as  tolerant  as  it  ever  had  been  of 
doctrinal  divergencies,  and  stood  uncompromisingly  for  a 
liberal  construction  of  the  constitution.  Such  was  the 
New  School  Church  in  1861  ;  and  up  to  this  date,  the 
Old  School  Assembly  had  refused  to  listen  to  any  over- 
tures for  closer  relations.  It  had  even  refused  on  one 
occasion  to  join  with  the  New  School  Assembly  in  cele- 
brating the  Lord's  Supper. 


262     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Reunion  of  the  Assemblies,  1870.— The  war  between 
the  sections  brought  new  issues  to  the  front.  The  pas- 
sions of  men  were  deeply  stirred ;  and  very  naturally 
those  who  entertained  common  views  touching  the  mat- 
ters involved  in  the  great  civil  strife  were  drawn  together. 
In  the  profound  solicitudes  and  intense  excitements  of 
the  present,  the  contentions  over  doctrinal  and  specula- 
tive questions  belonging  to  the  past  dwindled  into  insig- 
nificance. 

So  early  as  1862,  the  Old  School  Assembly  took  the 
initiative  of  proposing  an  annual  interchange  of  fraternal 
delegates.  The  New  School  responded  to  the  proposal 
with  great  heartiness  ;  and  the  very  next  year  the  inter- 
change took  place,  with  marked  effect  on  the  rising  tide 
of  fraternal  feeling.  In  1866,  both  assemblies  met  in 
St.  Louis,  and  the  last  lingering  spark  of  mutual  distrust 
and  animosity  was  extinguished  by  a  free  interchange  of 
views  and  sentiments. 

At  this  meeting  of  the  assemblies,  committees  of  con- 
ference were  appointed  to  arrange  a  platform  for  reunion. 
This  committee  during  three  successive  years  sought  for 
a  doctrinal  basis  of  agreement.  They  had  for  a  starting 
point  the  fact  that  both  bodies  had  the  same  confessional 
standards.  It  was  known,  however,  that  these  standards 
did  not  mean  the  same  thing  to  both  bodies.  The  effort 
was  therefore  made  to  formulate  an  interpretation  of  the 
standards  in  such  vague  and  general  terms  as  that  each 
party  could  accept  it  and  put  its  own  meaning  on  it. 
The  effort  proved  unavailing,  and  finally  the  suggestion 
was  made  that  they  come  together  on  the  '*  basis  of  the 
standards  pure  and  simple."  This  suggestion  was  sub- 
mitted to  the  presbyteries  of  both  assemblies,  and  after 
being    accepted    by   them,  the    assemblies    ratified   the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  263 

agreement,  and  were  merged  into  one  body  in  1870. 
The  reunited  Church  resolved  to  celebrate  the  happy  re- 
union by  raising  a  thank-offering  of  ^5,000,000.  The 
effort  resulted  in  the  gratifying  sum  of  ^7,607,491. 

Progress  Since  Reunion,  and  Present  Condition  of 
the  Church. — Ever  since  the  reunion,  the  spirit  of  the 
Church  has  been  earnestly  aggressive.  It  has  pressed  its 
work  with  unremitting  zeal,  both  at  home  and  abroad. 
Its  growth  has  been  commensurate  with  its  zeal.  At  the 
time  the  two  churches  became  one,  their  combined  mem- 
bership was  446,561.  This  number  had  been  swelled  to 
1,094,908  in  1904.  No  church  in  this  country  has  a 
more  enviable  record  for  world-wide  missionary  effort. 
With  commendable  wisdom  it  divides  its  forces  so  as  to 
broaden  the  basis  of  operations  at  home  to  keep  pace 
with  the  ever-enlarging  demands  of  the  work  abroad. 
Its  Board  of  Home  Missions  directs  the  labors  of  a  great 
army  of  missionaries,  scattered  thickly  over  forty  states 
and  territories.  Its  foreign  mission  work  is  carried  on 
in  one  hundred  and  twenty-seven  principal  stations,  re- 
presenting nearly  all  the  countries  of  the  heathen  world. 

Indications  of  Conservatism  in  Doctrine. — Some  fa- 
mous heresy  trials  have  been  a  marked  feature  of  Church- 
life  since  the  reunion.  Especially  worthy  of  notice  are 
the  decisions  against  Prof.  David  Swing  in  1874,  Dr. 
Charles  A.  Briggs,  1893,  Dr.  Henry  Preserved  Smith, 
1894,  and  Prof.  A.  C.  McGiffert,  1899.  Prof.  David 
Swing,  who  was  accused  of  denying  the  divinity  of 
Christ,  after  having  been  acquitted  by  the  Presbytery  of 
Chicago,  withdrew  from  the  Presbyterian  Church  before 
his  case  could  be  brought  before  the  GeneralAssembly. 
Drs.  Briggs  and  Smith  were  suspended  from  the  ministry 
for  holding  and  teaching  doctrines  at  variance  with  the 


264     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

word  of  God  and  the  standards  of  the  Church.  The 
views  of  Dr.  McGiffert,  as  found  in  his  pubHshed  writings, 
were  condemned,  and  the  attention  of  his  presbytery  was 
called  to  them  by  the  General  Assembly.  He  did  not 
wait  for  the  action  of  the  presbytery,  but  quietly  with- 
drew from  the  Church.  These  three  distinguished  profess- 
ors, one  occupying  a  chair  in  Lane  Seminary,  and  the 
other  two  occupying  chairs  in  Union  Seminary,  N.  Y., 
were  all  in  the  same  category.  Their  defections  were 
due  to  their  having  adopted  the  methods,  and  accepted 
many  of  the  radical  results  of  the  higher  criticism.  The 
fact  that  their  admitted  scholarship,  their  eminent  posi- 
tion and  their  personal  popularity  could  not  save  them 
from  the  official  censures  of  the  Church,  would  indicate 
that  the  Church  was  healthily  orthodox,  and  soundly  con- 
servative. 

Revision  of  the  Standards,  1903. — In  1889  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  took  up  the  subject  of  revision,  and  sub^ 
mitted  to  the  presbyteries  certain  questions,  calling  for 
an  expression  of  their  wishes  in  the  matter.  A  consid- 
erable majority  of  the  presbyteries  expressed  a  desire  for 
revision.  Whereupon  the  General  Assembly  appointed 
a  committee  to  take  the  matter  in  hand.  After  a  few 
tentative  efforts  in  which  the  presbyteries  failed  to  reach 
an  agreement  as  to  the  form  and  extent  of  the  desired 
revision,  the  subject  was  laid  aside.  In  1900,  the  as- 
sembly, moved  thereto  by  the  importunity  of  a  number 
of  presbyteries,  revived  the  project.  This  second  effort 
was  brought  to  what  the  Church  regarded,  with  remark- 
able unanimity,  as  a  happy  consummation  in  1903.  The 
revision  consists  of  three  parts  :  (i)  Two  declaratory 
statements,  explaining  Chapter  III  of  the  Confession  of 
F^ith,  touching  God's  eternal  decree ;  and  Chapter  X, 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  265 

Section  3,  concerning  elect  infants  ;  (2)  slight  changes  in 
the  text  of  three  relatively-unimportant  articles  of  the 
confession;  and  (3)  the  addition  of  two  chapters  to  the 
Confession  of  Faith — one  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the 
other  on  the  Love  of  God  and  Missions.  When  the  as- 
sembly resolved  to  enter  on  the  work  of  revision,  it  was 
with  the  express  understanding  "  that  the  revision  shall 
in  no  way  impair  the  integrity  of  the  system  of  doctrine 
set  forth  in  the  confession  and  taught  in  the  holy  Scrip- 
ture." One  year  after  the  revision  was  adopted,  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  deliberately  declared  that  the  revision  had 
not  impaired  the  system  of  doctrine  contained  in  the 
confession.  Thus  it  would  appear  that  the  Church  claims 
to  be  as  genuinely  and  thoroughly  Calvinistic  as  it  ever 
was. 

A  Brief  Statement  of  the  Reformed  Faith.— The  as- 
sembly of  1902  adopted  a  "  Brief  Statement  of  the  Re- 
formed Faith,"  comprising  sixteen  articles.  The  previous 
assembly  explained  that  this  brief  statement  was  "  to  be 
prepared  with  a  view  to  its  being  employed  to  give  in- 
formation and  a  better  understanding  of  our  doctrinal 
beliefs,  and  not  with  a  view  to  its  becoming  a  substitute 
for,  or  an  alternative  of,  our  Confession  of  Faith."  The 
sixteen  articles  bear  on  their  face  that  the  assembly  had 
in  mind  to  present  the  doctrines  of  Calvinism  in  untech- 
nical  language  and  thus  render  them  more  easily  under- 
stood by  the  mass  of  the  people.  But  while  doing  this, 
the  assembly  put  itself  on  record  as  purposing  to  con- 
tinue to  test  the  orthodoxy  of  its  ministry  by  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith.  If  faithful  to  this  purpose,  the  truth  as 
held  by  the  fathers  will  suffer  little  or  no  harm  from  the 
revision  of  the  standards.  The  design  of  the  brief  state- 
ment is  to  inform  and  conciliate  the  people,  not  to  widen 


266     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  door  of  entrance  to  the  ministry.  The  only  cause  for 
apprehension  is  that  "  the  spirit  of  inquiry  which  has  re- 
suhed  in  present  changes  will  require  further  progress 
and  additional  statements." 

Movement  Toward  Closer  Relations  with  Other 
Churches. — In  response  to  overtures  from  a  number  of 
presbyteries,  the  General  Assembly  of  1903  appointed  a 
committee  "  to  consider  the  w^iole  subject  of  cooperation, 
confederation  and  consolidation  with  other  churches." 
This  committee  met  in  conference  a  similar  committee 
appointed  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  ;  and  the  two  committees  formu- 
lated a  "  Plan  of  Union,"  which  they  reported  to  their 
respective  assemblies  in  1904.  This  plan  recommends 
that  *'  the  union  shall  be  effected  on  the  doctrinal  basis 
of  the  Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  America,  as  revised  in  1903,  and  of 
its  other  doctrinal  and  ecclesiastical  standards  ;  and  the 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  shall  be  ac- 
knowledged as  the  inspired  word  of  God,  the  only  infal- 
lible rule  of  faith  and  practice." 

In  order  to  a  fuller  understanding,  a  number  of  "  con- 
current declarations "  were  submitted  along  with  the 
Basis  of  Union  to  the  two  assemblies.  In  these  "  concur- 
rent declarations  "  it  is  stated  that  "  in  adopting  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  as  revised  in  1903,  as  a  Basis  of  Union, 
it  is  mutually  recognized  that  such  agreement  now  exists 
between  the  systems  of  doctrine  contained  in  the  Con- 
fessions of  Faith,  of  the  two  churches,  as  to  warrant  this 
union, — a  union  honoring  alike  to  both.  It  is  recognized 
also  that  the  doctrinal  deliverance  contained  in  the  brief 
statement  of  the  Reformed  Faith,  adopted  in  1902  by  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  267 

General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  '  for  a  better  understanding  of 
our  doctrinal  beliefs,'  reveals  a  doctrinal  agreement  favor- 
able to  reunion."  These  statements  made  it  clear  that 
the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  was  favorable  to 
reunion  on  the  ground  that  the  revised  confession  and 
the  brief  statement  contained  a  modified  form  of  Calvin- 
ism in  substantial  accord  with  that  held  by  the  Cumber- 
land Church.  In  other  words,  the  Cumberland  Church 
was  ready  to  unite  with  the  Northern  Church  on  the 
basis  of  the  latter's  standards  because  these  standards  had 
come  to  be  substantially  identical  with  its  own.  The 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  meeting  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y., 
May,  1904,  approved  this  '*  Plan  of  Union,"  by  an  over- 
whelming vote,  and  sent  it  down  to  the  presbyteries  for 
their  adoption.  In  doing  so,  the  assembly  simply  de- 
clared its  sympathy  with  movements  intended  to  secure 
the  union  of  the  Presbyterian  Churches  in  the  United 
States  into  one  body. 

Outlook  for  the  Future. — Splendid  as  have  been  the 
achievements  of  this  Church  in  the  past,  it  is  manifestly 
entering  on  a  career  of  much  larger  achievement.  Its 
vast  and  varied  resources  of  strength,  its  earnest  and  en- 
ergetic spirit  of  evangelism,  and  its  thoroughly-organized 
and  well-equipped  agencies  give  promise  of  rapid  and  in- 
definite expansion,  of  great  and  glorious  triumphs  for  the 
kingdom  of  Christ.  All  lovers  of  Zion,  and  especially  all 
who  cherish,  as  a  precious  treasure,  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformed  Faith,  must  watch  with  profound  interest  the 
onward  march  of  this  mighty  division  of  the  sacra- 
mental hosts.  In  numbers,  in  wealth,  and  in  the  wide 
sweep  of  its  manifold  activities,  it  is  by  far  the  greatest 


268     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Presbyterian  Church  in  the  world.  Numerically  weaker 
than  two  other  denominations  in  the  United  States,  yet, 
owing  to  the  intelligent,  thrifty  and  cultured  character 
of  its  constituency,  it  probably  exerts  a  more  powerful 
influence  than  any  other  church  on  the  destinies  of  our 
republic. 


CHAPTER  X 

UNITED  STATES  (^Continued) 

The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States. — 
The  cause  that  brought  about  the  Civil  War  of  1861-65 
made  the  organization  of  the  Southern  Presbyterian 
Church  inevitable.  The  nation  could  not  divide  without 
rending  the  Church.  Slavery  was  the  leading  cause  in 
dividing  the  country.  At  first  it  was  an  institution  com- 
mon to  all  sections  of  the  land ;  but  in  course  of  time  it 
became  localized  in  the  South.  Moral  and  religious  mo- 
tives had  little,  or  nothing,  to  do  with  this  localization. 
The  causes  for  it  were  purely  economic. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  country  there  was  little 
scruple  of  conscience  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  unless 
among  the  Quakers.  When,  by  and  by,  conscience  did 
begin  to  make  its  protest,  this  protest  was  wide-spread 
and  earnest  in  the  region  where  slavery  existed.  When 
it  took  the  form  of  antislavery  societies,  these  were  more 
numerous  in  the  South  than  in  the  North.  Unfortu- 
nately for  the  continued  development  of  a  healthy  antisla- 
very sentiment,  an  opposition  sprang  up  in  New  England, 
which,  not  appreciating  conditions  in  the  South,  took 
on  what  was  regarded  as  an  extreme  form.  Its  spirit 
and  methods  provoked  resentment,  and  created  alarm 
throughout  the  South.  The  attitude  of  the  sections  to- 
ward the  institution  of  slavery  rapidly  changed.  The 
South,  thrown  on  the  defensive,  disbanded  its  antislavery 
societies,  lost  interest  in  schemes  of  colonization,  and 

269 


270     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

planted  itself  squarely  on  its  constitutional  right  to  hold 
slaves.  The  opposition  sentiment  spread  from  New 
England  through  the  North.  Controversy  embittered 
both  sides.  A  political  party  was  formed  on  the  basis 
of  no  further  extension  of  slavery.  The  South  looked 
upon  this  as  a  violation  of  the  constitutional  compact  on 
which  the  Federal  Government  was  founded.  Hence 
when  Abraham  Lincoln  led  this  new  party  to  victory  in 
i860,  the  Southern  states  construed  this  as  a  virtual  dis- 
solution of  the  bond  of  national  unity,  and  at  once  began 
to  assert  in  a  practical  manner  their  right  of  secession. 

Political  Excitement  in  Church  Courts.— When  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Old  School  Presbyterian  Church 
met  in  Philadelphia  in  1 861,  the  fires  of  civil  strife  had 
been  already  kindled.  The  delegates  who  composed  the 
assembly  were  divided  in  their  allegiance.  The  occasion 
was,  therefore,  a  most  remarkable  one.  It  called  for  the 
greatest  prudence  and  patience,  a  gentleness,  delicacy 
and  self-control  that  could  hardly  be  expected  of  any 
but  the  perfectly  sanctified. 

When  the  delegates  came  together  in  1 861,  they  came 
with  the  convictions  which  had  been  gathering  strength 
through  the  years,  and  which  were  bursting  forth.  North 
and  South,  in  flames  of  civil  war.  Some  of  these  dele- 
gates believed  that  slavery  was  a  grievous  sin ;  that  se- 
cession was  rebellion;  and  that  disobedience  to  the 
Federal  Government  was  treason.  Others  believed  that 
slavery  had  the  sanction  of  God's  word ;  that  secession 
was  a  constitutional  right ;  and  that  disobedience  to  the 
Federal  Government,  when  demanded  by  one's  state,  was 
an  act  of  patriotic  duty.  What  ground  was  there  to 
hope  that  an  assembly  thus  constituted  could  perma- 
nently hold  together  ? 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  271 

Political  Deliverances. — In  both  sections  of  the  Church, 
political  excitement  was  running  high,  and  was  making  it- 
self manifest  to  some  extent  in  the  pulpits  and  courts  of 
the  Church.  One  of  the  first  political  deliverances  was 
by  the  Synod  of  South  Carolina  which  passed  the  follow- 
ing resolution :  *'  Resolved,  the  synod  has  no  hesitation, 
therefore,  in  expressing  the  behef  that  the  people  of 
South  Carolina  are  now  solemnly  called  on  to  imitate 
their  Revolutionary  forefathers,  and  stand  up  for  their 
rights.  We  have  an  humble  and  abiding  confidence  that 
that  God,  whose  truth  we  represent  in  this  conflict,  will 
be  with  us ;  and,  exhorting  our  people  and  churches  to 
put  their  trust  in  God  and  go  forward  in  the  solemn  path 
of  duty,  which  his  providence  opens  before  them,  we, 
elders  and  members  of  the  Presbyterian  churches  in 
South  Carolina  Synod  assembled,  would  give  them  our 
benediction,  and  the  assurance  that  we  shall  fervently 
and  unceasingly  implore  for  them  the  care  and  protec- 
tion of  Almighty  God." 

Evidently  the  Presbyterians  of  the  South  were  in  full 
political  sympathy  with  the  movement  for  dismembering 
the  general  Government.  Their  sympathy  was  actively 
assisting  in  this  disintegrating  work.  The  Presbyterians 
of  the  North  were  just  as  heartily  and  actively  in  sym- 
pathy with  the  effort  forcibly  to  put  a  stop  to  the  move- 
ment. Was  it  reasonable  to  expect  that  those  who  were 
political  enemies  would  meet  together  in  the  courts  of 
the  Church,  and  preserve  intact  the  bonds  of  ecclesiastical 
brotherhood  ? 

The  "  Spring  Resolutions."— It  was  evident  that  if  the 
General  Assembly  of  1861  should  give  expression  to  any 
sentiments  concerning  the  conflict  that  was  on  between 
the  sections,  a  violent  controversy  would  be  precipitated, 


272     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

and  perhaps  the  result  would  be  a  division  of  the  Church. 
For  somevvhile  after  the  assembling  of  the  body,  the 
effort  to  keep  out  political  discussion  was  successful. 
But  there  was  a  strong  demand  from  the  outside  that  this 
assembly  should  put  itself  on  record  touching  the  grave 
issues  that  were  threatening  the  life  of  the  Government. 
And  there  were  members  of  the  assembly  who  felt  that 
the  Church  owed  a  duty  to  a  distracted  country;  and 
that  it  should  discharge  this  duty,  even  at  the  risk  of 
dividing  its  own  constituency.  Accordingly  on  the  sixth 
day  of  the  session,  resolutions  were  introduced  providing 
for  a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer  "  that  God  would  turn 
away  his  anger  from  us,  and  speedily  restore  to  us  the 
blessings  of  an  honorable  peace."  Had  the  resolutions 
stopped  here  all  could  have  acquiesced,  but  the  assembly 
proceeded  to  declare  '•  our  obligation  to  promote  and 
perpetuate,  so  far  as  in  us  hes,  the  integrity  of  the  United 
States,  and  to  strengthen,  uphold  and  encourage  the 
Federal  Government  in  the  exercise  of  all  its  functions 
under  our  noble  constitution ;  and  to  this  constitution,  in 
all  its  provisions,  requirements  and  principles,  we  profess 
our  unabated  loyalty."  These  resolutions,  known  as  the 
"Spring  Resolutions,"  because  offered  at  first  by  Dr. 
Gardner  Spring,  were  adopted  by  a  vote  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty-six  to  sixty-six. 

The  Protest  of  Dr.  Hodge  and  Others.— The  character 
and  purport  of  these  resolutions,  as  they  were,  and  still 
are,  regarded  by  the  Presbyterians  of  the  South,  cannot 
be  set  forth  more  clearly  than  they  were  set  forth  at  the 
time  in  the  protest  offered  by  the  eminent  theologian. 
Dr.  Charles  Hodge,  and  signed  by  himself  and  fifty-seven 
members  of  the  assembly,  including  fourteen  of  the  six' 
teen  commissioners  who  were  present  from  the  South. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  273 

In  this  protest  the  signers  declare :  "  We  make  this  pro- 
test, not  because  we  do  not  acknowledge  loyalty  to  our 
country  to  be  a  moral  and  religious  duty,  according  to 
the  word  of  God  which  requires  us  to  be  subject  to  the 
powers  that  be,  nor  because  we  deny  the  right  of  the 
assembly  to  enjoin  that  and  all  other  like  duties  on  the 
ministers  and  churches  under  its  care,  but  because  we 
deny  the  right  of  the  General  Assembly  to  decide  the 
political  question  to  what  government  the  allegiance  of 
Presbyterians,  as  citizens,  is  due,  and  its  right  to  make 
that  decision  a  condition  of  membership  in  our  Church." 

Withdrawal  of  Southern  Presbyteries  and  Synods. — 
The  Presbyterians  of  the  South  believing,  whether  rightly 
or  wrongly,  that  the  General  Assembly  in  passing  a 
resolution  which  put  into  the  mouth  of  all  who  were 
represented  in  it  "  a  declaration  of  loyalty  and  allegiance 
to  the  Union  and  to  the  Federal  Government,"  had  trans- 
cended its  constitutional  right,  had  no  scruples  of  con- 
science about  renouncing  their  allegiance  to  the  Church 
of  their  fathers.  During  the  summer  and  fall  of  1861, 
forty-seven  presbyteries  in  the  South  by  formal  official 
action  severed  their  organic  connection  with  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  America.  The  synods  to  which  these  presbyteries 
belonged  ratified  their  action.  Each  of  these  synods, 
having  withdrawn  from  the  central  authority,  was  for  the 
time  being  independent.  But  as  they  were  all  in  hearty 
accord  politically,  and  at  one  in  other  respects,  they 
promptly  sought  a  bond  of  unity  in  another  central 
authority. 

Organization  of  the  First  Assembly. — A  convention, 
representing  a  number  of  presbyteries,  met  in  Atlanta  in 
August  of  1 861,  and  arranged  for  an  orderly  meeting  of 


274    HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

a  General  Assembly  to  be  held  in  Augusta,  Georgia,  on  the 
4th  day  of  the  following  December.  Accordingly  ninety- 
three  ministers  and  ruling  elders,  commissioned  for  that 
purpose,  met  at  the  time  and  place  appointed.  They 
effected  a  temporary  organization  by  selecting  the  Rev. 
Francis  McFarland,  D.  D.,  to  preside,  and  the  Rev.  B.  M. 
Palmer,  D.  D.,  to  preach  the  opening  sermon.  After- 
the  sermon,  the  assembly  was  permanently  organized  by 
electing  Dr.  Palmer  moderator,  and  the  Rev.  Joseph  R. 
Wilson,  stated  clerk. 

Immediately  after  the  organization,  the  assembly  pro- 
ceeded to  choose  a  name  and  adopt  a  constitution,  which 
it  did  in  the  following  resolutions  : — 

1.  That  the  style  and  title  of  this  Church  shall  be : 
The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  Confederate  States  of 
America. 

2.  That  this  assembly  declare,  in  conformity  with  the 
unanimous  decision  of  our  presbyteries,  that  the  Con- 
fession of  Faith,  the  Larger  and  Shorter  Catechisms,  the 
Form  of  Government,  the  Book  of  Discipline,  and  the 
Directory  of  Worship,  which  together  make  up  the 
Constitution  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  are  the  Constitution  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  the  Confederate  States  of  America. 

An  Address  to  the  Churches  of  Jesus  Christ  Through- 
out the  World. — Early  in  the  sessions  of  this  first  as- 
sembly a  committ-ee  was  appointed  to  prepare  an  address 
which  should  publish  to  the  Christian  world  the  reasons 
for  the  new  organization,  and  its  attitude  toward  certain 
questions  of  general  interest.  The  chairman  of  this  com- 
mittee, and  the  author  of  the  able  and  eloquent  address 
was  the  Rev.  James  Henley  Thornwell,  D.  D.  In  this 
address  two  reasons  are  assigned  for  separation  : — 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  275 

1.  "  la  the  first  place,  the  course  of  the  last  assembly, 
at  Philadelphia,  conclusively  shows  that  if  we  remain 
together,  the  political  questions  which  divide  us,  as  citizens, 
will  be  obtruded  into  the  Church  courts,  and  discussed 
with  all  the  bitterness  and  rancor  with  which  such  ques- 
tions are  discussed  by  men  of  the  world.  Our  assembly 
would  present  a  mournful  spectacle  of  strife  and  debate." 

(The  address  proceeds  to  argue  that  separation  is  there- 
fore necessary  in  the  interest  of  peace  and  Christian 
charity.) 

2.  "  Though  the  immediate  occasion  of  separation 
was  the  course  of  the  General  Assembly  at  Philadelphia 
in  relation  to  the  Federal  Government  and  the  war,  yet 
there  is  another  ground  on  which  the  independent  or- 
ganization of  the  Southern  Church  can  be  amply  and 
scripturally  maintained." 

This  other  ground  was  that  churches  should  be 
bounded  by  national  limits.  Inasmuch,  therefore,  as  the 
presbyteries  in  the  South  had,  in  the  Providence  of  God, 
been  placed  under  a  new  national  government,  they 
should  conform  their  organization  to  these  new  limits. 
While  the  address  asserts  that  this  is  a  sufficient  ground 
to  justify  separation  from  the  Church  of  the  fathers,  it 
strongly  insists  that  this  separation  does  not  mean  that 
the  Presbyterians  of  the  South  have  ceased  to  love  the 
old  Church,  or  have  abjured  its  ancient  principles,  or  for- 
gotten its  glorious  history. 

Organization  of  the  Benevolent  Work  of  the  Church. 
— It  devolved  on  this  first  assembly  to  shape  the  pohcy 
of  the  Church  in  the  conduct  of  all  its  schemes  of  Chris- 
tian beneficence,  and  to  give  practical  effect  to  this 
policy.  It  appointed  four  executive  committees,  to 
which    it   intrusted   the    direction    of    foreign    missions, 


276     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

domestic  missions,  education  and  publication.  The  con- 
stitution of  all  these  committees  was  the  same.  Before 
the  division  of  the  Church,  Dr.  Thornwell  had  contended 
for  such  a  modification  of  the  boards  of  the  Church,  as 
would  bring  them  more  directly  under  control  of  the 
General  Assembly.  His  views  found  expression  in  the 
constitution  of  these  executive  committees.  The  com- 
mittees are  appointed  for  only  one  year ;  their  powers 
are  clearly  defined  and  closely  limited ;  and  their  work 
is  kept  under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  General 
Assembly. 

Since  that  first  assembly,  the  Church  has  found  it 
necessary  for  the  more  efficient  prosecution  of  its  work 
to  create  two  other  executive  committees,  one  of  Colored 
Evangelization,  in  1891,  and  one  of  Ministerial  Relief,  in 
1 90 1.  The  two  committees  of  Ministerial  Education  and 
of  Ministerial  Relief  were  consolidated  by  the  assembly 
of  1904.  So  that  at  the  present  time,  the  Church  carries 
on  its  benevolent  work  through  five  executive  agencies, 
and  carries  it  on  in  a  thoroughly  systematic  and  satis- 
factory way. 

The  Church  During  the  Civil  War.— Of  course,  the 
Church  shared  in  the  disasters  that  laid  waste  the  whole 
South  during  the  terrible  years  between  1861-65.  It 
had  to  move  its  executive  agencies  from  place  to  place, 
according  to  the  changing  fortunes  of  the  war.  When 
one  assembly  was  dissolved  it  was  a  matter  of  much  un- 
certainty where  and  when  the  next  would  meet.  The 
one  appointed  to  meet  in  Macon,  Georgia,  in  the  spring 
of  1865,  could  not  meet  there  until  the  succeeding  De- 
cember. The  inferior  courts  were  in  like  manner  thrown 
into  confusion  and  hindered  in  their  regular  work. 

The  Church  maintained,  however,  in  the  midst  of  all 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  277 

discouragements,  a  vigorous  life,  furnishing  chaplains  for 
the  army,  and  caring  as  best  it  could  for  the  congrega- 
tions which  in  the  providence  of  God  were  committed  to 
its  trust.  It  gave  constant  and  earnest  attention  to  the 
religious  instruction  of  the  colored  people,  devoting  to 
this  work  some  of  its  finest  pulpit  talent.  It  was  also 
privileged  to  do  some  effective  mission  work  among  the 
Indians. 

At  the  close  of  the  war,  its  people  were  impoverished  ; 
the  flower  of  its  young  men  had  been  slain  in  battle ;  and 
many  of  its  church  buildings  were  in  ashes.  In  these 
distressing  circumstances,  the  assembly  gratefully  ac- 
knowledged timely  help  received  from  the  "  Board  of 
Aid  for  Southern  Pastors,"  located  in  Louisville,  Ky. ; 
and  for  similar  generosity  shown  by  churches  in  Balti- 
more. 

Union  With  the  United  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church. — This  Church  was  organized  in  1858  out  of  the 
southern  contingent  of  the  New  School  Assembly,  as  a 
practical  protest  against  the  deliverances  of  that  assembly 
on  the  subject  of  slavery. 

The  propriety  of  seeking  a  union  with  the  United 
Synod  was  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  assembly, 
during  its  sessions  in  Columbia,  S.  C,  in  1863,  by  an 
overture  from  the  Presbytery  of  East  Hanover.  Com- 
mittees of  conference  were  appointed  by  both  bodies 
which  met  in  Lynchburg,  Virginia,  in  the  July  following, 
and  found  little  difficulty  in  framing  a  platform  on  which 
both  churches  could  stand. 

The  difference  between  these  churches  did  not  have 
respect  to  doctrine  so  much  as  to  questions  of  ecclesias- 
tical polity  involved  in  the  exscinding  resolutions  which 
consummated  the  division  of  the  Church  in  1837.     When, 


278     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

therefore,  this  union  was  formed,  it  was  without  the 
shghtest  doctrinal  concession,  or  compromise,  on  the  part 
of  either  body.  They  not  only  adopted  the  same  stand- 
ards, but  adopted  them  ex  animo  and  in  the  same  sense. 
The  result  was  a  perfect  fusion,  leaving  no  mark  or  scar 
to  show  where  the  old  line  of  cleavage  had  run. 

By  this  union  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church  re- 
ceived an  accession  of  about  one  hundred  and  twenty 
ministers,  one  hundred  and  ninety  churches,  and  twelve 
thousand  communicants. 

Affairs  in  the  Synod  of  Kentucky. — In  the  great  up- 
heaval of  1861-1865,  the  Synod  of  Kentucky  adhered  to 
the  Northern  Assembly.  At  the  same  time,  it  avowed 
its  purpose  to  steer  clear  of  all  political  entanglements. 
It  "  enjoined  on  all  its  members,  and  upon  all  under  its 
control  and  care  to  avoid  all  divisive  and  schismatical 
courses,  to  cultivate  the  peace  of  the  Church,  and  to 
practice  great  mutual  forbearance."  It  deplored  the 
schism  which  had  occurred  in  the  Southern  states,  and 
condemned  it  as  without  sufficient  justification.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  expressed  regret  that  the  General  Assem- 
bly had  taken  the  action  which  furnished  the  chief  pre- 
text for  it.  The  assembly,  at  its  next  meeting,  when  the 
minutes  of  the  Synod  of  Kentucky  came  before  it  for  re- 
view, censured  the  synod  for  having  disapproved  its 
action  of  the  previous  year.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
a  strife  between  these  two  bodies  which  waxed  more  and 
more  bitter  until  it  culminated  in  separation. 

The  Declaration  and  Testimony. — In  1865,  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly  declared  that  all  who  approved  of  slavery 
and  abetted  the  rebellion  were  guilty  of  heresy  and 
treason,  and  enjoined  the  different  courts  under  its 
jurisdiction  to  admit  none  to  their  fellowship  who  had 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  279 

been  guilty  of  these  sins,  except  on  evidence  of  sincere 
repentance. 

In  view  of  this  injunction,  the  Presbytery  of  Louisville 
put  forth  a  paper  that  became  notable  as  "  The  Declara- 
tion and  Testimony."  This  was  a  protest  against  what 
the  presbytery  was  pleased  to  call  "  the  erroneous  and 
heretical  doctrines  and  practices  which  had  obtained  and 
been  propagated  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  during  the  last  five  years."  This  paper  brought 
matters  to  an  acute  crisis. 

The  Gurley  Ipso  Facto  Resolutions. — When  the  assem- 
bly met  in  St.  Louis  in  1866,  one  of  the  first  things  to  en- 
gage its  attention  was  the  "  Declaration  and  Testimony." 
The  commissioners  from  the  Louisville  Presbytery  were 
deprived  of  their  seats  m  the  Assembly  while  the  matter  was 
pending.  The  result  was  the  adoption  of  a  series  of  vig- 
orous resolutions,  citing  the  signers  of  the  Declaration 
and  Testimony  to  appear  before  the  next  assembly  to 
answer  for  what  they  had  done,  and  forbidding  them  in 
the  meantime  to  sit  as  members  of  any  Church  court 
higher  than  the  session.  It  was  further  resolved  that 
if  any  presbytery  should  refuse  obedience  to  this  action 
of  the  Assembly,  such  disobedience  should  ipso  facto  dis- 
solve the  presbytery.  The  synods  were  also  required  to 
be  guided  by  this  action  of  the  Assembly  in  making  up 
their  rolls  at  their  next  stated  meetings. 

Division  of  the  Synod  of  Kentucky. — The  Synod  of 
Kentucky,  at  its  next  fall  meeting,  disregarded  the  action 
of  the  Assembly.  Whereupon  Dr.  R.  J.  Breckenridge 
withdrew,  taking  with  him  thirty-one  other  ministers,  and 
twenty-eight  ruling  elders,  representing  one  thousand  and 
eight  hundred  -communicants.  One  hundred  and  eight 
ministers,  representing  nine  thousand  and  eight  hundred 


28o     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

communicants  stood  together  against  the  Assembly. 
The  Assembly  of  1867  recognized  the  seceders  who  fol- 
lowed Dr.  Breckenridge  as  the  true  synod  and  declared 
the  regular  synod  and  its  presbyteries  to  be  no  true 
courts  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  These,  however,  still 
accounted  themselves  the  constitutional  Synod  of  Ken- 
tucky. 

Union  With  the  Southern  Assembly. — Considering 
the  action  of  the  Northern  Assembly  as  having  severed 
their  connection  with  that  body,  they  immediately  sought 
admittance  to  the  Southern  Assembly.  A  comparison  of 
views  revealed  an  essential  harmony  and  consequently 
a  union  was  speedily  consummated.  Commissioners  from 
the  presbyteries  of  Kentucky  appeared,  and  were  ad- 
mitted to  membership  in  the  Assembly  of  1868. 

Union  With  the  Synod  of  Missouri. — This  synod 
went  through  an  experience,  in  all  essential  respects,  sim- 
ilar to  that  of  Kentucky.  It  had  among  its  members 
some  who  had  signed  the  "  Declaration  and  Testimony." 
It  refused  to  discipline  them  according  to  the  require- 
ment of  the  '*  Gurley  ipso  facto  resolutions,"  and  ex- 
pressed disapproval  of  what  it  termed  the  unconstitutional 
and  unjust  deliverances  of  the  Assembly.  For  this  it  was 
called  to  account,  and  refusing  submission  was  cut  off. 
For  a  number  of  years  it  maintained  an  independent  po- 
sition. At  length,  in  1874,  a  large  part  of  it  united  with 
the  Southern  Assembly. 

Addition  of  Several  Smaller  Bodies. — The  Inde- 
pendent Presbyterian  Church,  a  small  brotherhood  in 
North  and  South  Carolina,  was  brought  into  the  South- 
ern Assembly  in  1863;  the  Presbytery  of  Patapsco,  in 
Maryland  in  1867;  the  Alabama  Presbytery  of  the  As- 
sociate Reformed  Presbyterian  Church,  with  permission 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  281 

to  continue  to  sing  exclusively  Rouse's  version  of  the 
Psalms,  in  1867;  and  the  Associate  Reformed  Presby- 
tery of  Kentucky  in  1870. 

The  union  with  all  these  various  bodies  "  brought  in 
about  282  ministers,  490  churches,  and  35,600  com- 
municants." As  the  union,  in  every  case,  was  on  the 
basis  of  perfect  doctrinal  affinity,  there  has  been  no  re- 
sultant evil.  The  Church  as  it  stands  to-day  is  one 
hving  organism,  with  no  scars  on  its  body  to  show  that 
any  grafting  has  been  done.  The  ten  synods  have  ex- 
panded into  thirteen;  the  forty-seven  presbyteries  into 
seventy-nine;  and  the  sixty-five  thousand  white  com- 
municants into  two  hundred  and  thirty  nine  thou- 
sand. 

Relations  with  the  Northern  Assembly. — In  1870, 
immediately  after  the  union  of  the  Old  School  and  New 
School  Assemblies  at  the  North,  the  united  body  made 
friendly  overtures  to  the  Southern  Church,  asking  that 
a  committee  of  conference  be  appointed  to  meet  a 
similar  committee  of  their  own  church,  to  see  if  it  were 
not  practicable  to  find  a  basis  for  closer  relations  between 
the  two  churches.  The  Southern  Assembly  granted  the 
request  but  accompanied  the  appointment  of  the  com- 
mittee with  "  instructions,"  setting  forth  grave  charges 
made  by  both  Old  School  and  New  School  Assemblies 
against  the  character  of  Southern  Presbyterians.  It  was 
asserted  that  these  charges  presented  a  serious  difficulty 
in  the  way  of  closer  relations,  and  that  they  must  be 
distinctly  met  and  removed.  Owing  to  these  "  instruc- 
tions "  which  were  construed  as  a  virtual  prejudging  of 
the  matters  to  be  considered  in  conference,  the  com- 
mittee of  the  Northern  Assembly  declined  to  meet  for 
conference. 


282     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

A  Second  Unsuccessful  Effort  to  Bring  About  Closer 
Relations. — In  1874,  overtures  were  renewed,  and  again 
committees  of  conference  were  appointed  by  both  as- 
semblies. These  committees  met  in  Baltimore,  and  dis- 
cussed very  fully  the  obstacles  which  lay  in  the  way  of 
closer  relations.  This  time  the  committee  of  the  South- 
ern Church  was  not  instructed,  but  evidently  it  deemed 
the  former  "  instructions  "  as  still  expressing  the  mind 
of  the  church.  Consequently  it  suggested  as  a  condition 
precedent  to  fraternal  relations :  "  If  your  Assembly 
could  see  its  way  clear  to  say  in  a  few  plain  words,  to 
this  effect,  that  these  obnoxious  things  were  said  and 
done  in  times  of  great  excitement  and  are  to  be  regretted, 
and  that  now  on  a  calm  review,  the  imputations  cast  on 
the  Southern  Church  (of  schism,  heresy  and  blasphemy) 
are  disapproved,  that  would  end  the  difficulty  at  once." 
The  committee  of  the  Northern  Assembly  declined  to 
recommend  such  a  retraction  to  their  Assembly,  on  the 
ground  that  their  Assembly  had  already  said  enough  in 
recent  deliverances,  in  reaffirming  its  adherence  to  con- 
stitutional principles,  and  in  expressing  its  confidence  in 
the  Christian  character  of  the  Southern  Presbyterian 
Church,  to  afford  a  basis  for  fraternal  relations. 

Fraternal  Relations  Established.— In  1882,  the 
Southern  Assembly  took  the  initiative  in  an  effort  to 
remove  all  grounds  of  offense,  and  adopted  the  follow- 
ing :  "  In  order  to  remove  all  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  that  full  and  formal  fraternal  correspondence  which  on 
our  part  we  are  prepared  to  accept,  we  adopt  the  follow- 
ing minute, — that  while  receding  from  no  principle,  we 
do  hereby  declare  our  regret  for,  and  our  withdrawal  of, 
all  expressions  of  our  Assembly  which  may  be  regarded 
as  reflecting  upon,  or  offensive  to,  the  General  Assembly 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  283 

of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America. 

"  Resolved,  that  a  copy  of  this  paper  be  sent  by  tele- 
graph to  the  General  Assembly,  now  in  session  at 
Springfield,  Illinois,  for  their  prayerful  consideration, 
and  mutatis  mutandis,  for  their  reciprocal  concurrence, 
as  affording  a  basis  for  the  exchange  of  delegates  forth- 
with." 

On  receipt  of  this  telegram,  the  Northern  Assembly 
adopted  a  reply  couched  in  the  same  language,  and  re- 
newed its  expression  "  of  warm  fraternal  regard  for  all 
who  compose  the  communion  of  the  Southern  Church," 
and  declared  its  readiness  to  exchange  delegates  forth- 
with. 

This  reply  was  received  by  the  Southern  Assembly 
with  sentiments  of  warmest  satisfaction. 

A  Resolution  that  "  Explained." — Thus  a  wide  and 
painful  breach  was  apparently  healed,  and  feelings  of 
perfect  fraternity  restored.  But  a  note  of  discord  was 
thrown  in  by  a  telegram  from  the  moderator  of  the 
Northern  Assembly,  telling  of  a  resolution  of  that  as- 
sembly to  the  effect  •'  that  in  the  action  now  being  taken 
we  disclaim  any  reference  to  the  actions  of  preceding  as- 
semblies concerning  loyalty  and  rebellion,  but  we  refer 
only  to  those  concerning  schism,  heresy  and  blasphemy." 
This  necessitated  another  interchange  of  telegrams — one 
from  the  Southern  Assembly  to  know  if  it  was  the  in- 
tention of  the  Northern  Assembly  to  "  modify "  the 
concurrent  resolution  by  the  subsequent  resolution ;  and 
a  reply  from  the  Northern  Assembly  saying  it  was  not 
their  intention  to  "  modify,"  but  to  "  explain."  This  was 
declared  satisfactory  by  the  Southern  Assembly,  and  so 
fraternal  relations  between  the  two  churches  were  an  ac- 


284     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

complished  fact.  Delegates  were  appointed  by  each 
assembly  to  carry  salutations  to  the  other  at  their  next 
annual  meeting. 

Cooperation  of  the  Two  Assemblies  in  Christian 
Work. — Since  the  establishment  of  fraternal  relations  in 
1882,  efforts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  to  bring 
the  two  churches  into  closer  cooperation.  These  efforts 
have  proved  in  a  measure  successful.  Cooperation  has 
been  brought  about  in  the  work  of  foreign  missions,  in 
publication,  and  recently  in  education  in  the  states  of 
Missouri  and  Kentucky,  as  respects  Westminster  College, 
Centre  University,  and  Louisville  Theological  Seminary. 

Revived  Interest  in  Closer  Relations  with  Other 
Presbyterian  Bodies. — A  wide-spread  interest  is  manifest- 
ing itself  touching  closer  relations  with  several  Presby- 
terian bodies.  A  number  of  presbyteries  sent  overtures 
to  the  assembly  which  met  in  May,  1904,  in  Mobile, 
Alabama,  asking  the  appointment  of  a  committee  of 
conference  on  the  subject.  Some  of  these  presbyteries 
specified  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  as  one  with  which 
closer  relations  were  especially  desired;  other  presby- 
teries singled  out  the  Northern  Presbyterian  Church. 

On  the  second  day  of  the  assembly's  sessions,  it  re- 
ceived the  following  telegram :  *'  The  General  Assembly 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  in  session  at  Buffalo,  has  adopted,  with  only 
one  dissenting  vote,  the  following  resolutions  : — 

"Whereas,  It  is  known  that  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States,  now 
in  session  in  Mobile,  Alabama,  has  before  it  over- 
tures from  several  of  its  presbyteries,  looking  to  closer 
relations  with  this  Assembly,  and 

"  Whereas,  We  earnestly  desire  to  remove  all  obstacles 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  285 

to  such  relations;  therefore,  be  it  Resolved  that  this 
General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States  of  America  hereby  removes  all  asper- 
sions and  charges  of  any  and  every  kind  made  by 
previous  assemblies  reflecting  on  the  Christian  character 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States,  and  is 
ready  at  any  time  to  confer  on  the  subject  of  closer  re- 
lations whenever  such  conference  shall  be  agreeable  to 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the 
United  States." 

Appointment  of  a  Committee  of  Conference.— The 
assembly  in  Mobile  heard  the  foregoing  telegram  with 
much  gratification;  and  sent  a  response  as  follows: 
"  The  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
the  United  States  learns  with  joy  of  the  action  of  your 
assembly  in  the  removal  of  all  aspersions  upon  the  Chris- 
tian character  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States,  and  declares  its  readiness  to  follow  the  leadings  of 
providence  in  the  matter  of  closer  relations,  overtures 
touching  which  are  now  before  us  for  consideration." 

When  these  overtures  were  considered  by  the  Assem- 
bly, the  result  was  the  appointment  of  a  committee  of 
conference,  not  charged,  however,  with  the  specific  duty 
of  conferring  with  representatives  of  the  Northern 
Church,  but  "  authorized  and  empowered  to  confer  with 
similar  committees  that  may  be  appointed  by  other  Pres- 
byterian and  Reformed  churches."  The  assembly  speci- 
fied that  its  committee  was  to  confer  on  the  subject  of 
closer  relations  with  such  churches  as  enter  the  confer- 
ence with  a  view  to  discover : — 

"  I.  The  real  sentiments  of  the  churches  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

*'  2.     The  leadings  of  God's  providence  in  the  matter. 


286     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

"  3.  The  obstacles  that  may  stand  in  the  way  of  closer 
fellowship. 

"  4.  Whether  and  how  such  obstacles  can  be  re- 
moved. 

"5.  And  what  may  be  the  nature  and  form  of  the 
relation  which  shall  best  secure  effective  cooperation,  by 
federation  or  otherwise,  and  at  the  same  time  preserve 
loyalty  to  those  great  principles  for  which  the  various 
churches  have  been  called  to  testify." 

The  heart  of  the  Southern  Church  is  profoundly  in- 
terested in  the  great  Church,  of  which  it  once  formed  a 
part,  whose  early  history  it  helped  to  make,  and  by  whose 
present  power  it  is  sensibly  affected.  Lying  contiguous 
and  in  part  overlapping,  the  two  churches  cannot  be 
separated  in  influence. 

Characteristics  of  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church. 

1.  Perhaps  the  most  prominent  characteristic  of  this 
church  is  jealous  loyalty  to  the  Westminster  Standards. 
It  holds  with  unwavering  firmness  to  the  undiluted  Cal- 
vinism of  those  standards.  It  acknowledges  no  need  of 
any  new  statement  of  old  truth,  but  continues  satisfied 
with  the  statement  furnished  by  the  heroic  and  godly 
men  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

2.  This  jealous  loyalty  demands  of  the  ministry  strict 
creed-subscription.  Such  hberty  of  dissent  in  minor 
matters  as  was  granted  by  the  Adopting  Act  of  1729  is 
still  permitted,  but  there  must  be  no  uncertain  sound 
touching  the  doctrinal  system  of  the  Confession.  The 
law  requires  that  every  presbytery  shall  cause  to  be  tran- 
scribed in  some  convenient  part  of  its  book  of  records  the 
obligations  required  of  ministers  at  their  ordination, 
which  shall  be  subscribed  by  all  admitted  to  membership 
in  the  following  form:     *' I,  A.  B.,  do  ex  anuno  receive 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  287 

and  subscribe  the  above  obligation  as  a  just  and  true  ex- 
hibition of  my  faith  and  principles,  and  do  resolve  and 
promise  to  exercise  my  ministry  in  conformity  there- 
unto." 

3.  The  church  stresses  the  principle  that "  synods  and 
councils  are  to  handle,  or  conclude  nothing  but  that 
which  is  ecclesiastical,  and  are  not  to  intermeddle  with 
civil  affairs."  Interpreting  this  with  rigid  literalness,  the 
church  excludes  from  its  courts  all  discussion  of  political 
questions,  and  refuses  alliance  with  any  organizations  that 
aim  merely  at  social  or  political  reforms. 

4.  It  stands  by  the  "  plenary  verbal  inspiration  "  of 
the  Bible,  believing  that  this  is  the  claim  which  the  Bible 
makes  for  itself.  Its  views  touching  the  inerrancy  of  the 
Scriptures  have  not  been  affected  perceptibly  by  the  find- 
ing of  what  claims  to  be  the  highest  and  broadest 
scholarship  in  the  sphere  of  biblical  criticism. 

5.  It  has  not  yet  given  up  certain  traditional  inter- 
pretations, which  have  been  generally  discarded : — 

{a)  While  thoroughly  satisfied,  and  more  than  satis- 
.  fied,  with  the  destruction  of  slavery  as  it  formerly  existed 
in  the  South,  it  continues  to  believe,  as  did  the  Old 
School  Assembly  in  1845,  that  the  word  of  God  sanc- 
tions the  institution  of  slavery. 

{p)  It  persists  in  maintaining,  as  did  the  undivided 
Church  in  1832  that  to  "  teach  and  exhort,  or  to  lead  in 
prayer  in  public  and  promiscuous  assemblies,  is  clearly 
forbidden  to  women  in  the  Holy  Oracles." 

6.  It  has  committed  itself  to  the  policy  of  a  separate 
church  for  the  colored  people.  It  has  been  moved 
thereto,  {a)  by  deference  to  the  wishes  of  the  colored 
people ;  [b)  by  the  conviction  that  the  increased  responsi- 
bility would  best  develop  the  colored  people ;  and  (c)  by 


288     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  apprehension  of  social  embarrassments  which  might 
result  from  ecclesiastical  mixture. 

By  this  policy  of  an  independent  African  Church,  it 
has  not  meant  to  cast  off  the  colored  people  from  its 
sympathy  and  help.  It  maintains  a  school  for  educating 
colored  preachers ;  contributes  to  the  support  of  their 
churches ;  organizes  and  conducts  colored  Sabbath 
schools ;  and  thus  in  various  ways  continues  to  manifest 
a  practical  interest  in  the  religious  Hfe  of  the  colored 
people. 


CHAPTER  XI 

UNITED  STATES  (^Continued) 

The  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church.  — Few 
churches  have  had  a  more  humble  beginning  than  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian.  It  came  into  distinct  exist- 
ence on  the  4th  day  of  February,  1810,  in  the  log-cabin 
home  of  the  Rev.  Samuel  McAdow,  in  Dickson  County, 
Tennessee.  This  venerable  minister  joined  with  two 
others,  Finis  Ewing  and  Samuel  King  in  the  organization 
of  an  independent  presbytery.  These  two  latter  were 
young  men,  who  had  been  brought  into  the  ministry  in 
an  irregular  manner,  and  their  ordination  was  never 
recognized  by  the  Church  from  which  they  were  seced- 
ing. They  met  at  the  home  of  Mr.  McAdow  because  he 
was  too  infirm  to  meet  with  them  elsewhere.  Surely 
these  first  elements  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church  were  "  the  weak  things  of  the  world."  But  it  is 
the  prerogative  of  God  to  take  the  weak  things  and 
«'  confound  the  mighty." 

Ministry  of  the  Rev.  James  McGready.— The  founding 
of  this  new  church  was  the  result  of  troubles,  growing  out 
of  the  great  revival  that  marked  the  opening  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  The  revival  began  in  Kentucky 
under  the  ministry  of  the  Rev.  James  McGready.  He 
was  a  native  of  North  Carolina,  and  was  educated  by 
the  Rev.  John  McMillan  at  his  famous  school  in  western 
Pennsylvania.  In  1796,  he  moved  from  North  Carolina 
to  Logan  County,  Kentucky,  and  became  pastor  of  three 

289 


290     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

congregations  with  the  euphonious  names  of  Caspar 
River,  Red  River,  and  Muddy  River.  His  parishioners 
were  hardy  pioneers,  many  of  them  reckless  adventurers 
from  the  older  colonies.  Probably  in  all  the  wild  border 
territory,  no  more  irreligious  population  could  have  been 
found  than  that  which  made  up  the  young  state  of  Ken- 
tucky. The  whole  country  was  still  feeling  the  demoral- 
izing effects  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  and  the  influx  of 
P>ench  infidelity  which  belonged  to  that  period.  But 
nowhere  did  ungodUness  in  all  its  forms  take  deeper  root, 
or  flourish  more  vigorously  than  in  Kentucky.  In  1793, 
the  Legislature  passed  an  act,  dispensing  with  public 
prayer  in  its  sessions.  No  man  ever  had  more  need  of  faith 
and  courage  than  did  the  Rev.  James  McGready.  F'or- 
tunately  for  the  future  of  that  country,  few  men  have  had 
greater  faith  and  courage  than  he.  Finding  a  few  Chris- 
tians who  knew  how  to  pray  and  were  willing  to  pray, 
he  formed  them  into  an  aggressive  band.  They  entered 
into  the  following  covenant  :  "  We  bind  ourselves  to 
observe  the  third  Saturday  in  each  month  for  one  year  as 
a  day  of  fasting  and  prayer  for  the  conversion  of  sinners 
in  Logan  County  and  throughout  the  world.  We  engage 
to  spend  half  an  hour  every  Saturday  evening,  beginning 
with  set  of  sun,  and  half  an  hour  every  Sabbath  morning 
at  the  rising  of  the  sun,  in  pleading  with  God  to  revive 
his  work." 

The  Revival  and  Its  Consequences. — The  praying 
band  was  formed  in  1796.  In  May  of  the  next  year,  the 
httle  cloud  not  bigger  than  a  man's  hand  appeared.  It 
grew  larger  and  larger  till  it  overspread  all  the  heavens 
in  parts  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  gave  forth 
"  showers  of  blessing."  The  history  of  the  Church  in 
this  country  furnishes  no  more  striking  illustration  of  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  291 

fact  that  "  the  Lord  will  hear  his  chosen  when  they 
cry." 

As  the  revival  spread  and  grew  in  power,  some  irregu- 
larities began  to  manifest  themselves.  Those  leading  the 
movement  were  not  so  much  concerned  for  the  way  in 
which  sinners  were  brought  to  repentance,  as  for  the 
actual  bringing  of  them  to  repentance.  Perhaps,  they 
were  too  little  careful  to  see  that  everything  was  done 
decently  and  in  order.  But  after  all  people  will  differ, 
even  good  people,  as  to  what  constitutes  decency  and 
order,  and  further  as  to  how  much  relative  importance 
should  be  attached  to  these  things.  So  it  came  to  pass 
that  two  parties  sprang  up,  and  the  history  of  the  ''  Great 
Awakening"  of  1740  repeated  itself.  One  party  was 
heart  and  soul  in  sympathy  with  the  revival,  made  it 
their  aim  to  promote  it  and  to  secure  from  it  the  largest 
possible  harvest  of  professed  conversions.  If  to  any  of 
this  party  the  disorders  were  objectionable,  the  joy  at 
seeing  sinners  crying  for  mercy  so  far  outweighed  all  that 
was  objectionable  as  to  make  the  latter  scarcely  worth  a 
thought.  The  other  party  was  completely  alienated  by 
the  disorders.  They  could  see  no  good  equal  to  the  evils 
that  were  incident  to  the  great  emotional  excitement. 
Some  of  these  objectors  were  good  men,  overcautious, 
perhaps,  but  they  firmly  believed  that  the  revival  was 
little  else  than  wildfire  that  would  soon  burn  over  the 
ground,  burn  itself  out,  and  leave  matters  worse  than 
they  were  before.  Others  objected  because  they  had 
little  or  no  sympathy  with  religious  aggressiveness.  But 
despite  opposition,  the  revival  continued  to  spread  and 
deepen  for  the  space  of  three  years. 

Extraordinary  Manifestations,  Mental  and  Phys- 
ical.— It  is  probable  that  the  emotional  excitement  at- 


292     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

tending  some  of  the  meetings,  during  this  revival,  has 
not  been  exceeded  by  anything  of  hke  kind  in  the  history 
of  the  Church.  A  writer  describing  it  says  :  "  It  was 
subhme,  grand,  awful.  The  noise  was  like  the  roar  of 
Niagara.  The  vast  sea  of  human  beings  was  agitated 
as  if  by  a  storm.  The  tide  of  emotion  seemed  to  roll 
over  them  like  tumultuous  waves.  Sometimes  hundreds 
were  swept  down  almost  at  once,  like  the  trees  of  the 
forest  under  the  blast  of  the  wild  tornado.  Seven 
ministers,  some  in  wagons,  others  standing  on  stumps, 
might  have  been  seen,  all  addressing  the  multitude  at 
the  same  time.  Of  the  people,  some  were  singing,  others 
praying,  others  crying  aloud  for  mercy,  others  still, 
shouting  most  vociferously,  while  hardened  men,  who, 
with  horrid  imprecations,  rushed  furiously  into  the  pray- 
ing circles,  were  smitten  down  as  if  by  an  invisible  hand, 
and  lay  powerless,  or  racked  by  fearful  spasms  till  their 
companions,  beholding  them,  were  palsied  by  terror.  At 
times  the  scene  was  surpassingly  terrible,  and  the  boldest 
heart  was  unmanned.  The  infidel  forgot  his  philosophy, 
and  trembled  till  he  sank  to  his  knees,  or  fell  to  the 
earth.  '  At  one  time,'  says  a  spectator,  •  I  saw  at  least 
five  hundred  swept  down  in  a  moment,  as  if  a  battery  of 
a  thousand  guns  had  opened  on  them;  and  then  im- 
mediately followed  shrieks  and  shouts  that  rent  the  very 
heavens.  My  hair  rose  upon  my  head,  my  whole  frame 
trembled,  the  blood  ran  cold  in  my  veins,  and  I  fled  to 
the  woods.'  Such  is  the  testimony  of  one  who  would 
not  have  fallen  to  the  ground  for  the  whole  of  Kentucky, 
and  who,  when  his  feelings  had  become  intense  and  in- 
supportable sought  to  allay  them  by  a  dram  of  brandy." 

In  addition  to  these  mental  and  spiritual  phenomena  there 
were  others  just  as  remarkable  of  a  purely  physical  kind. 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  293 

"  There  were  the  falling,  the  jerking,  the  running,  the  danc- 
ing and  the  barking  exercises.  Individuals  were  seized  by 
these,  often  in  spite  of  studied  resistance,  and  sometimes 
almost  while  the  jest  or  open  blasphemy  was  upon  their 
lips."  The  experiences  were  certainly  remarkable,  and 
no  satisfactory  psychological  explanation  of  them  can  be 
given.     Similar  experiences  are  recorded  of  other  revivals. 

Formation  and  Character  of  Cumberland  Presby- 
tery.— At  the  beginning  of  the  revival,  the  Presbytery  of 
Transylvania  covered  the  w^hole  state  of  Kentucky.  In 
1799,  it  was  divided  into  three;  in  1802  it  was  again 
divided,  and  the  new  presbytery  was  named  Cumber- 
land. It  comprised  ten  ministers,  and  they  were  equally 
divided  on  the  subject  of  the  revival.  By  the  addition 
of  the  Rev.  James  Howe,  who  came  from  the  Metho- 
dist Church,  those  who  favored  the  revival  gained  a 
majority.  As  might  be  supposed,  the  majority  as- 
sumed that  they  were  the  wise,  and  so  proceeded  to 
ordain,  in  the  course  of  the  next  three  years,  several  new 
preachers  who  were  in  accord  with  them.  This  gave 
them  a  good  working  majority,  and  henceforth  they  had 
everything  their  own  way. 

Complaint  of  the  Minority  to  Synod.— In  October, 
1804,  the  minority  of  the  Cumberland  Presbytery  com- 
plained to  synod,  charging  the  majority  of  the  presbytery 
with  ordaining  young  men,  who  were  uneducated  and  un- 
sound in  the  faith.  The  synod  cited  the  members  of  the 
Cumberland  Presbytery,  complained  of,  to  appear  before 
its  bar  at  its  next  meeting.  It  also  appointed  a  com- 
mittee to  attend  the  next  meeting  of  the  presbytery,  and 
look  into  its  irregularities.  The  presbytery  resented 
these  acts  of  synod,  and  the  members,  whose  conduct 
was  under  censure,  refused  to  obey  the  summons. 


294     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

A  Commission  Appointed  by  Synod  with  Plenary 
Powers. — At  its  meeting  in  1805,  the  ^ynod  appointed  a 
commission  to  confer  with  the  Cumberland  Presbytery, 
and  empowered  this  commission  to  rectify  whatever  it 
found  wrong  in  the  previous  doings  of  the  presbytery. 
The  commission  met,  and  cited  before  it  all  the 
preachers,  and  licentiates  of  the  presbytery.  These  all 
obeyed  the  citation.  After  some  investigation  the  com- 
mission adopted  a  paper  solemnly  condemning  the 
presbytery  for  having  ordained  and  licensed  men  con- 
trary to  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  and  demanding 
that  those  so  ordained  and  Hcensed  should  be  reexamined 
before  the  synod.  The  presbytery  protested  against  this, 
and  the  young  men  refused  to  submit  to  reexamination. 
The  commission  then  rendered  its  verdict,  declaring  the 
young  men,  not  only  illiterate,  but  erroneous  in  senti- 
ment, and  that  their  ordination,  or  licensure,  was  there- 
fore illegal,  and  prohibiting  them  from  exhorting,  or 
preaching,  or  administering  the  sacraments.  The  com- 
mission cited  the  older  ministers  for  trial  before  the  synod 
at  its  next  meeting.  They  refused  to  appear;  where- 
upon the  synod,  in  October,  1806,  suspended  them  from 
the  ministry  and  dissolved  the  Cumberland  Presbytery. 
During  its  brief  existence  this  presbytery  ordained  four 
ministers,  Hcensed  seven,  and  received  under  its  care  a 
number  of  candidates  and  exhorters. 

Failure  to  Obtain  Redress  through  the  General 
Assembly. — The  suspended  members  of  the  dissolved 
presbytery  felt  aggrieved,  and  not  unreasonably,  at  the 
action  of  the  synod.  They  sought  redress  from  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  explaining  the  urgent  demand  for 
preachers  growing  out  of  the  revival,  and  the  impossi- 
bility of  meeting  this  demand  with  a  supply  of  regularly- 


THE  UNITED  STA lES  OF  AMERICA  295 

qualified  preachers.  In  licensing  young  men  of  defective 
literary  qualification,  the  presbytery  had  permitted  them, 
in  subscribing  to  the  Confession  of  Faith,  to  except  to  the 
"  idea  of  fatality,"  which  they  believed  to  be  taught  in 
the  chapter  on  "  God's  Eternal  Decrees."  They  ex- 
plained to  the  General  Assembly  that  they  permitted 
this  exception  because  of  "  the  concise  manner  in  which 
the  highly-mysterious  doctrine  of  divine  decrees  is 
therein  expressed."  Unfortunately  for  these  brethren, 
they  failed  to  lodge  a  formal  complaint  against  the  Synod 
of  Kentucky  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  Rules  of 
Discipline.  More  than  one  assembly  expressed  a  kindly 
concern  for  them,  and  a  willingness  to  give  them  a  hear- 
ing if  they  would  seek  redress  in  an  orderly  way.  They, 
however,  permitted  the  favorable  opportunity  to  pass 
away  unimproved,  and  the  Synod  of  Kentucky  ultimately 
succeeded  in  securing  from  the  assembly  an  endorsement 
of  its  course.  Nothing  was  now  left  to  them  but  to  sub- 
mit and  seek  readmittance  to  the  old  Presbytery  of  Tran- 
sylvania, to  which  they  had  been  remanded  when  the 
Cumberland  Presbytery  was  dissolved,  or  to  set  up  a  new 
and  independent  organization. 

The  Birth  of  a  New  Denomination.— At  this  juncture 
of  affairs,  the  aggrieved  brethren  numbered  six.  When 
it  was  proposed  to  organize  an  independent  presbytery, 
three  of  them  withdrew  and  sought  reconciliation  with 
the  old  Church.  One  of  the  others  could  not  see  his  way 
clear,  and  so  there  were  only  two  left,  Finis  Ewing  and 
Samuel  King,  who  were  ready  to  go  forward.  They 
were  of  the  number  of  those  whose  ordinations  were 
pronounced  invalid.  It  seemed  as  if  the  repressive  meas- 
ures of  the  Synod  of  Kentucky  were  about  to  succeed. 
One  possible  way  remained  to  these  two  young  men  to 


296     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

carry  out  their  purpose.  Rev.  Samuel  McAdovv,  too  in- 
firm from  age  to  meet  with  his  brethren,  had  ever  been 
an  earnest  promoter  of  the  revival,  and  had  helped  to 
license  and  ordain  Ewing  and  King.  It  occurred  to  them 
that  he  might  join  them,  and  thus  furnish  the  requisite 
number  for  a  new  presbytery.  They  sought  him  at  his 
home  and  laid  the  matter  before  him.  He  asked  them  to 
wait  till  the  next  morning  for  his  answer.  He  spent  the 
night  in  prayer,  and  the  next  morning  assented  to  their 
request.  Thus  was  brought  into  existence  a  church, 
which  has  had,  in  many  respects,  a  remarkably  successful 
career. 

Rapid  Growth  of  the  Church.— When  the  new  and 
independent  Cumberland  Presbytery  was  organized,  there 
was  before  it  an  open  door  into  a  wide  and  promising 
field.  Thousands  of  converts  had  been  gathered  into 
churches  during  the  great  revival,  who  were  ready  to 
welcome  any  kind  of  preachers,  who  could  pray  and  ex- 
hort, and  whose  hearts  were  in  sympathy  with  the  new 
movement.  Hence  the  infant  church  grew  with  amazing 
rapidity.  In  three  years,  the  three  preachers  had  devel- 
oped into  three  presbyteries,  and  these,  in  October,  181 3, 
formed  the  Cumberland  Synod.  This  continued  to  be 
their  supreme  court  until  1828,  when  it  divided  into  four 
synods,  and  in  May,  1829,  a  General  Assembly  was  formed. 
At  this  time  there  were  sixteen  presbyteries.  The  church 
has  never  ceased  to  grow,  though  its  rate  of  progress  has 
been  by  no  means  so  rapid  in  recent  years.  At  present 
it  numbers  nearly  two  thousand  ministers,  about  three 
thousand  churches,  and  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
communicants. 

In  addition  to  the  fact  that  much  material  was  ready 
to  hand  in  the  beginning  of  the  church's  career,  it  may 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  297 

be  further  stated,  as  explaining  its  rapid  growth,  that  its 
ministry  has  usually  been  imbued  with  a  warm  evangel- 
istic zeal,  and  has  been  persistent  in  the  use  of  revival 
methods.  As  a  rule,  its  preachers  have  equaled  or  sur- 
passed the  Methodists  in  the  use  of  "  high  pressure " 
methods.  The  mourner's  bench,  with  stirring  appeals  to 
the  feehngs,  has  been  a  prominent  instrument  of  propa- 
gandism.  Born  amidst  scenes  of  wild  excitement,  the 
church  has  ever  regarded  such  scenes  as  the  fittest  for 
the  healthful  development  of  piety  and  the  rapid  exten- 
sion of  the  kingdom.  While  it  has  commended  itself  to 
many  of  the  educated  and  thoughtful  class,  its  success 
has  been  largely  among  those  with  whom  appeals  to  the 
emotions  are  more  effective  than  reasons  and  persuasion 
addressed  to  intellect  and  conscience. 

Colored  Cumberland  Presbyterians, — At  the  close  of 
the  Civil  War,  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  had 
quite  a  considerable  membership  of  colored  people.  In 
1869,  these  asked  to  be  set  off  by  themselves.  Their  re- 
quest was  granted.  They  now  have  an  assembly  of  their 
own,  representing  twenty  presbyteries  and  about  thirty 
thousand  communicants. 

Doctrinal  Position  of  the  Cumberland  Presb5^erian 
Church. — The  doctrinal  position  of  this  Church  has  not 
been  so  clearly  defined  as  that  of  some  other  churches. 
What  it  has  done  at  creed-making  has  been  in  the  line 
of  modification  of  the  Westminster  Standards,  It  claims 
to  occupy  a  middle  ground  between  Calvinism  and  Ar- 
minianism. 

The  first  published  statement  of  ddctrine  was  put  forth 
by  the  synod  at  its  organization  in  181 3.  The  object 
was  to  show  the  points  of  departure  from  the  Westmin- 
ster Confession  of  Faith  ;  and  these  points  were  stated  in 


298     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  following  form  :  "  First,  there  are  no  eternal  repro- 
bates ;  second,  Christ  died  not  for  a  part,  but  for  all  of 
mankind ;  third,  all  infants,  dying  in  infancy  are  saved 
through  Christ  and  the  sanctification  of  the  spirit ;  fourth, 
the  spirit  of  God  operates  on  the  world,  or,  in  other 
words,  coextensively  with  the  atonement  of  Christ,  in 
such  manner  as  to  leave  all  men  inexcusable."  The  same 
synod  appointed  a  committee  to  prepare  a  fuller  creed. 
The  work  of  this  committee  consisted  in  revising  the 
Westminster  Confession.  The  changes  were  made  prin- 
cipally in  Chapters  III  and  X,  and  these  were  made  for  the 
purpose  of  relieving  the  confession  of  the  charges  of  fatal- 
ism and  of  damning  infants.  To  extend  God's  eternal 
decrees  to  "  whatsoever  comes  to  pass,"  and  then  to  predi- 
cate of  them  immutability  is,  in  the  view  of  the  Cumber- 
land Church,  to  teach  fatalism.  The  revised  Confession 
of  Faith  was  adopted  October  14,  18 14,  and  continued  to 
be  the  creed  of  the  church  down  to  1883.  At  this  time 
a  second  revision  was  adopted.  This  revision  was  merely 
in  form  of  statement,  leaving  the  doctrines  unchanged. 

Some  of  their  writers  sum  up  the  points  that  discrimi- 
nate the  doctrinal  position  of  the  Cumberland  Church 
from  Calvinism  on  the  one  hand,  and  Arminianism  on 
the  other,  in  the  three  following  statements : — 

"  I.     All  men  must  be  born  again  or  perish. 

"  2.     All  may  be  born  again  and  not  perish. 

"  3.     None  who  are  born  again  will  perish." 

On  these  propositions  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  first 
is  held  tenaciously  by  both  Calvinists  and  Arminians ; 
the  second  is  hypothetical,  and  according  to  the  condi- 
tions implied  would  be  either  rejected  or  accepted  by  both 
Calvinists  and  Arminians  ;  and  the  third  is  one  of  the 
historic   doctrines    of  Calvinism.     It   did   not  need  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  299 

efforts  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  to  demon- 
strate that  there  is  no  middle  ground  between  Calvinism 
and  Arminianism.  The  logical  mind  is  shut  up  to  one 
or  the  other.  The  space  between  them  is  "  bridgeless 
and  fathomless." 

The  Present  Position  of  the  Church. — In  its  own 
field,  and  in  its  own  way,  it  may  be  said  that  the 
Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church  has  borne  an  honor- 
able part  in  helping  to  build  up  the  one  kingdom  of 
Christ.  It  has  been  conspicuously  zealous  and  suc- 
cessful in  home  mission  work,  carrying  the  gospel,  at 
the  cost  of  heroic  self-sacrifice,  into  many  destitute 
regions.  In  1828,  its  first  missionary  entered  Texas. 
Nine  years  later  the  Texas  Presbytery  was  formed,  and 
this  one  presbytery  has  grown  into  twenty-seven,  repre- 
senting five  hundred  and  fifty-one  churches. 

In  1852,  it  sent  its  first  missionary  to  the  foreign 
field,  in  the  person  of  a  consecrated  young  colored 
man.  Since  that  time  it  has  sent  missionaries  to 
Turkey,  to  Japan  and  Mexico.  While  its  work  in 
these  fields  is  carried  on  in  a  very  small  way,  yet  the 
spirit  of  foreign  missions  is  growing  in  the  church,  and 
promises  better  things  for  the  future. 

Its  Educational  Policy  and  Work The  church  was 

organized  by  ministers  of  limited  education,  and  from  the 
beginning  refused  to  make  a  high  standard  of  literary 
qualification  a  condition  of  entering  the  ministry.  By 
this  the  Church  did  not  mean  to  undervalue  education, 
or  discourage  efforts  for  liberal  attainments  on  the  part 
of  those  seeking  the  ministry.  The  position  of  the 
Church  is  that  while  no  one  should  be  prohibited  from 
preaching  the  gospel  who  has  sufficient  education  to  ex- 
pound   it  clearly,  at  the  same  time  facilities  should  be 


300     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

provided  by  the  church  for  thorough  training,  and  those 
who  wish  to  preach  should  be  stimulated  to  secure  the 
best  preparation  possible  to  their  circumstances. 

Its  first  college  was  founded  at  Princeton,  Ky.,  in  1825, 
and  was  named  Cumberland  College.  This  institution 
was  moved  to  Lebanon,  Tenn.,  in  1842,  and  chartered  as 
"  Cumberland  University."  In  addition  to  the  academic 
department,  it  comprises  a  law  school  and  a  theological 
seminary.  This  is  the  church's  principal  school,  but  it 
has  a  number  of  other  colleges  and  academies,  scattered 
over  its  territory. 


CHAPTER  XII 
UNITED  STATES  {Continued) 

The  Dutch  Reformed  Church. — Since  1867  the  official 
name  of  this  church  has  been  the  Reformed  Church  in 
America.  But  it  continues  to  be  known  popularly  as 
the  Dutch  Reformed,  and  this  name  will  probably  cling 
to  it  for  years  to  come  as  designating  the  historic  source 
of  its  origin.  It  is  a  daughter  of  the  Church  of  Holland, 
and  is  entitled  to  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  church 
to  organize  a  congregation  on  Presbyterian  principles  in 
the  western  hemisphere. 

The  Settlement  of  New  Amsterdam.— Emigration 
from  Holland  to  America  dates  from  the  year  1609, 
when  Henry  Hudson  sailed  up  the  river,  which  has 
since  borne  his  name,  in  search  of  a  northwest  passage 
to  India.  He  was  sent  on  this  quest  by  the  Dutch  East 
India  Company,  who  hoped  by  travehng  Westward  to 
shorten  the  distance  to  the  East.  They  were  disappointed 
in  this  hope,  but  found  compensation  in  the  opening  up  of 
a  profitable  fur  trade  with  the  natives  of  the  new  world. 
Very  soon  after  exploring  the  Hudson  River,  a  number 
of  armed  trading  posts  were  established  along  its  shores. 
The  country  between  the  Connecticut  and  the  Delaware 
rivers  was  called  the  New  Netherlands,  and  it  was  fondly 
hoped  that  this  would  prove  a  permanent  and  valuable 
province  of  the  mother  country. 

The  first  considerable  colony  was  planted  on  the  island 
of  Manhattan,  and  this  colony,  after  the  coming  of  its 

301 


302     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

first  governor  in  1626,  took  the  name  of  New  Amster- 
dam. 

The  Beginning  of  Church  Life. — The  earliest  colonists 
were  not  moved  to  cross  the  ocean  from  religious  consid- 
erations. They  were  not,  like  the  Puritans  of  New  Eng- 
land, seeking  an  asylum  from  the  oppressor,  a  place 
where  they  might  worship  God  without  fear,  and  build 
up  a  church  according  to  their  own  views  of  scriptural 
teaching.  They  were  first  of  all  seeking  to  better  their 
fortunes  by  buying  furs  in  the  cheapest  market  and  sell- 
ing them  in  the  dearest.  The  interests  of  religion  had  to 
wait.  No  preachers  came  over  for  some  years.  The 
first  to  perform  the  public  offices  of  religion  were  the 
Kranken-besoeckers ,  or  comforters  of  the  sick.  These 
gathered  the  people  on  Sundays  and  read  to  them  from 
the  Scriptures  and  the  creeds. 

The  Dutch  West  India  Company.— In  1621  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company  was  organized,  and  to  it  was  com- 
mitted the  task  of  conquering  and  colonizing  the  wes- 
tern shores  of  the  Atlantic  from  the  Strait  of  Magel- 
lan to  the  North  Pole,  or  as  much  thereof  as  they  might 
find  it  convenient  to  undertake.  They  at  once  gave  a 
fresh  impetus  to  the  settlement  of  the  New  Netherlands. 
In  1623,  they  brought  over  quite  an  addition  to  the 
colony  on  Manhattan  Island.  Many  of  these  were  orig- 
inally from  Belgium,  the  lower  provinces  of  the  Nether- 
lands which  had  not  been  able  to  throw  off  the  tyran- 
nical yoke  of  Spain.  Thousands  of  Protestants  in  that 
country  took  refuge  in  Holland,  and  afterwards  numbers 
of  them  came  to  seek  the  larger  liberty  of  the  new  world. 
These  were  known  by  the  name  of  Walloons,  and  spoke 
the  French  language.  But  they  were  closely  allied  to 
the  Dutch,  were  in  fact  a  branch  of  the  Dutch  family,  and 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  303 

found  a  congenial  home  in  New  Amsterdam.  As  they 
had  given  up  their  country  for  the  sake  of  rehgion  their 
coming  was  a  decided  gain  to  the  moral  and  spiritual  in- 
terests of  the  young  colony.  Three  years  after  these 
landed  on  the  island,  Peter  Minuit,  the  first  governor, 
arrived.  He  was  an  earnest  Christian,  having  served  as 
a  deacon  in  the  church  of  Wesel.  Two  years  later  came 
the  first  minister,  the  Rev.  Jonas  Michaelius,  and  the 
same  year,  1628,  he  organized  the  first  church,  with  fifty 
communicants,  and  the  governor  as  one  of  the 
elders. 

The  Church  During  the  Rule  of  the  Dutch.— The 
Dutch  West  India  Company  was  supreme  in  the  affairs 
of  the  New  Netherlands,  its  rule  extending  to  church  as 
well  as  state.  It  belonged  to  this  company  to  send  out 
and  support  preachers  to  meet  the  spiritual  needs  of  the 
colonies.  The  members  of  the  company  seem  not  to 
have  been  deeply  impressed  with  these  needs.  They 
were  more  concerned  about  the  interests  of  commerce. 
Hence  preachers  were  a  scarce  commodity  in  the  Dutch 
settlements,  and  churches  developed  slowly.  For  thirty- 
six  years  from  the  date  of  the  birth  of  the  first  church 
only  eleven  churches  were  organized,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  during  all  this  while  there  was  a  steady 
stream  of  immigration  from  Holland.  The  principal 
church  was  in  New  Amsterdam,  and  most  of  the  others 
were  in  the  near  neighborhood.  One  of  considerable 
importance  was  at  Fort  Orange,  where  the  city  of 
Albany  now  stands.  This  was  served  by  the  most  fa- 
mous of  the  early  Dutch  preachers,  Megapolensis.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  energy,  courage  and  force  of  char- 
acter. Learning  the  language  of  the  Mohawks,  he 
preached  to  them  and  gained  such  influence  with  them 


304     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

as  enabled  him  to  save  from  torture  and  probably 
from  death  the  distinguished  Jesuit  priest,  Jogues.  It 
has  been  claimed  for  Megapolensis  that  he  was  the 
first  Protestant  missionary  to  the  Indians,  but  this 
claim  can  hardly  be  made  good  in  face  of  the  fact 
that  years  before  this,  Alexander  Whitaker  had  con- 
verted and  baptized  Pocahontas,  and  by  arduous  labors 
in  behalf  of  her  people  had  well  earned  the  title,  "  The 
Apostle  to  the  Indians." 

Relation  of  the  Dutch  to  the  Other  Colonists. — The 
New  Netherlands  was  under  the  same  liberal  laws  as  the 
mother  country,  and  like  the  mother  country  welcomed 
to  its  protection  the  oppressed  of  other  lands.  It  fur- 
nished an  asylum  for  Francis  Doughty  and  Richard 
Denton,  who  came  with  their  congregations  from  New 
England,  also  to  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson  and  others  who 
were  banished  from  Massachusetts.  Quite  a  number  of 
sects,  including  Independents,  Lutherans,  Presbyterians 
and  Anabaptists  found  a  refuge  under  the  protecting 
shield  of  the  generous  Dutch.  But  during  the  reign  of 
the  strenuous  Peter  Stuyvesant  a  change  came  over  the 
spirit  of  the  Netherlanders.  Their  efforts  to  prevent  the 
Lutherans  from  securing  a  minister,  and  establishing  a 
church  and  worship  of  their  own,  were  for  a  time  suc- 
cessful, but  at  length  the  liberal  spirit  of  Holland  pre- 
vailed, and  the  West  India  Company  promised  the  same 
toleration  in  the  New  Netherlands  as  was  enjoyed  in  Hol- 
land. This,  however,  did  not  prevent  Stuyvesant  and  his 
council  from  passing  another  stringent  order  against  con- 
venticles. The  Quakers,  who  had  settled  on  Long  Island 
in  considerable  numbers,  were  the  principal  sufferers, 
some  of  these  being  fined  and  imprisoned.  Finally,  in 
1662,  the  company  severely  rebuked  the  intolerance  of 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  305 

Stuyvesant,  and  ordered  that  no  one  be  disturbed  in  the 
free  exercise  of  his  rehgion  so  long  as  he  was  '<  modest, 
moderate,  and  irreproachable  in  his  political  conduct." 
This  was  a  timely  order,  for  in  a  little  while  the  Dutch 
needed  the  mercy  which  they  were  enjoined  to  show  to 
others. 

New  Amsterdam  Taken  by  the  English,  1664. — 
Charles  II,  of  England,  with  a  remarkable  and  un- 
scrupulous generosity,  gave  the  New  Netherlands  to  his 
brother,  Duke  of  York.  Whereupon  an  English  fleet, 
under  command  of  Richard  Nicolls,  crossed  over  from 
England,  sailed  up  into  the  bay  of  North  River,  near 
Staten  Island,  and  demanded  the  immediate  surrender  of 
New  Amsterdam.  The  little  city  was  without  means  of 
defense  either  in  men  or  munitions  of  war.  Notwith- 
standing this,  the  fiery  old  governor,  Peter  Stuyvesant, 
was  for  throwing  down  the  gage  of  battle,  and  only  the 
earnest  entreaties  of  citizens  and  burgomasters  induced 
him  to  yield.  Thus  without  bloodshed  one  of  the  most 
prosperous  colonies  of  the  new  world  changed  rulers,  and 
England  added  to  her  possessions  the  most  valuable 
province  on  this  side  of  the  ocean. 

The  conquest  checked  the  immigration  from  Holland, 
and  put  new  difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  progress  of  the 
church.  The  Dutch  feared  for  their  religious  liberty, 
and  not  without  reason.  They  had  taken  care  to  guard 
the  rights  of  the  church  by  having  inserted  in  the  terms 
of  surrender  an  article  which  read  :  "  The  Dutch  here 
shall  enjoy  the  liberty  of  their  consciences  in  divine 
worship  and  church  discipline."  Despite  this  fact  the 
English  governors  tried  to  establish  the  Episcopal  Church, 
and  cripple  the  other  churches,  though  P^piscopalians 
constituted  not  more  than  one  tenth  of  the  population. 


3o6     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

It  was  not  till  the  reign  of  the  Dutch  Presbyterian, 
William  III,  that  the  Reformed  Church,  by  securing  a 
charter,  rendered  its  liberties  secure. 

Some  Hindrances  to  the  Prosperity  of  the  Church 

When  New  Amsterdam  became  New  York,  by  passing 
under  English  rule,  there  were  thirteen  Reformed  churches 
and  seven  ministers.  Twelve  years  after  this  date  there 
were  only  three  ministers.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  there  were  but  twenty-nine  churches 
in  the  whole  province  of  New  York,  and  the  ministers 
were  so  scarce  that  few  congregations  had  the  privilege 
of  hearing  preaching  more  than  two  or  three  times  a 
year.  Several  causes  obstructed  the  progress  of  the 
church — such  as  the  character  of  the  earliest  colonists, 
who  sacrificed  the  ample  religious  blessings  of  the  home 
land  for  the  sake  of  commercial  gain ;  the  unsettled  con- 
dition of  the  colony  politically ;  the  constant  struggle  of 
a  feeble  but  aggressive  minority  to  secure  an  advantage 
for  the  Episcopal  Church ;  above  all  the  dependence  of 
the  Colonial  Church  on  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam.  Had 
the  Dutch  Reformed  imitated  the  Puritans  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  the  Scotch-Irish  of  the  middle  colonies,  and  cut 
loose  at  once  from  the  mother  church,  trusting  to  its 
own  resources,  developing  its  own  institutions  and  pro- 
viding its  own  ministry,  no  doubt  its  growth  would  have 
been  far  more  rapid.  But  for  a  century  and  a  half  it 
maintained  an  organic  connection  w^ith  the  Classis  of 
Amsterdam,  and  permitted  its  interests  to  wait  on  the 
fostering  care  of  that  court  three  thousand  miles  distant. 
Later,  another  retarding  cause  was  found  in  the  per- 
sistent use  of  the  Dutch  language.  As  late  as  1820,  the 
county  churches  clung  to  the  use  of  this  language  in  the 
public    services    of    the    sanctuary.     This    stamped    the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  307 

church  as  an  exotic,  and  restricted  its  growth  to  Dutch 
emigrants  and  their  descendants. 

The  Formation  of  a  Coetus,  1747. — It  was  not  till  the 
year  1737  that  the  church  began  to  think  seriously  of 
taking  steps  to  provide  a  fountain  of  authority  on  this 
side  of  the  ocean  to  look  after  the  interests  of  the  needy 
congregations.  Through  all  the  preceding  century  when 
they  had  a  candidate  for  the  ministry,  they  sent  him  in  a 
slow  sailing  vessel  three  thousand  miles  for  ordination. 
Provided  he  was  not  lost  at  sea,  it  cost  him  six  months' 
time  and  the  expense  of  the  voyage  to  receive  authority 
to  preach.  The  "  Great  Awakening,"  beginning  about 
1730,  and  promoted  in  no  small  measure  by  the  devoted 
labors  of  the  Rev.  Theodore  J.  Frelinghuysen,  made  the 
necessity  for  more  preachers  painfully  felt.  In  1737  a 
number  of  ministers  met  together  and  formulated  a  plan 
for  a  Coetus.  This  plan  was  submitted  to  the  churches, 
and  being  approved  by  them  was  sent  to  Holland  for  the 
approval  of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam.  After  nine  years 
of  waiting,  a  favorable  response  was  received.  But  the 
Coetus  was  so  hedged  about  with  restrictions  on  its 
authority  as  to  render  it  almost  useless.  Through  sub- 
ordinate circles  it  could  exercise  a  general  supervision 
over  the  congregations,  but  could  neither  license  candi- 
dates, nor  ordain  licentiates,  without  special  permission  in 
each  case  from  the  distant  classis.  The  church  worked 
badly  under  this  nondescript  affair,  which  had  no  logical 
place  in  the  polity  of  the  church,  being  neither  a  con- 
sistory, a  classis,  nor  a  synod.  Young  men  continued  to 
take  the  long  and  perilous  voyage  to  Holland  to  have  the 
hands  of  the  presbytery  laid  on  them. 

Transformation  of  the  Coetus  into  a  Classis. — 
The  conviction  deepened  that  a  more  effective  organiza- 


3o8     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

tion  was  essential  to  the  well-being  of  the  church.  There 
should  be  a  bona  fide  court  with  power  to  license  and  or- 
dain, and  to  manage  all  local  interests  without  referring 
to  Holland  for  advice,  or  permission.  Moreover  the  bond 
with  the  mother  church  was  weakening.  With  few  ex- 
ceptions, ministers  and  people  were  American  born,  and 
the  spirit  of  western  independence  was  stirring  in  their 
veins.  In  1754  an  assembly  of  eleven  ministers  and 
eleven  elders  adopted  a  plan  for  so  modifying  the  Coetus 
as  to  change  it  into  a  constitutional  classis.  The  plan 
was  submitted  to  the  congregations,  and  also  sent  to  the 
Synod  of  North  Holland  asking  the  assistance  of  that 
body  to  carry  it  into  effect. 

Just  at  this  juncture,  there  was  a  most  unfortunate 
split  in  the  church,  which  lasted  for  seventeen  years.  *  A 
few  ministers  wished  to  lend  themselves  to  an  effort  which 
the  Episcopalians  were  making  to  found  a  denominational 
college  in  the  city  of  New  York.  They  withdrew  from 
the  Coetus,  and  sent  a  letter  to  Holland,  entreating  the 
Classis  of  Amsterdam  not  to  approve  the  plan  on  foot  to 
form  an  independent  authority  in  America.  But  the 
Coetus  met  on  the  30th  of  May,  1754,  and  without  wait- 
ing longer  for  the  approval  of  the  mother  across  the 
Atlantic  assumed  all  the  powers  of  a  self-governing  body. 

Consolidation  and  Complete  Autonomy. — By  a  happy 
compensation  of  providence  there  came  at  this  time  into 
the  councils  of  the  distracted  church,  one  raised  up  of 
God  to  be  a  peacemaker,  and  a  source  of  abundant  bless- 
ing to  the  church  in  many  directions.  This  was  John 
H.  Livingston,  a  descendant  of  John  Livingston,  who  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  having  been  driven  from  Scot- 
land by  persecution,  had  received  a  loving  welcome  by 
the  Reformed  Church  of  Holland.     The  reward  for  re- 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  309 

ceiving  a  prophet  in  the  name  of  a  prophet  was  bestowed 
on  the  American  church  in  the  person  of  this  descend- 
ant. Graduating  from  Yale  College  in  1762,  he  dedicated 
himself  to  the  gospel  ministry,  and  cast  in  his  lot  with 
the  adopted  church  of  his  ancestors.  To  qualify  himself 
to  preach  in  the  Dutch  language,  he  went  to  Holland  for 
his  theological  education.  By  the  influence  gained  in 
the  mother  church  he  was  the  better  fitted  for  the  task 
of  bringing  together  the  warring  factions  in  the  daughter 
church.  Immediately  on  his  return  home  he  gave  him- 
self with  great  earnestness  to  this  delicate  task.  Such 
was  his  success  that  within  less  than  two  years,  the 
breach  was  healed,  a  new  form  of  organization  was 
adopted,  and  the  approval  of  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam 
was  secured.  The  new  organization  consisted  of  one 
general  body,  and  five  particular  bodies,  and  these  with 
such  powers  as  to  make  the  church  practically  independ- 
ent, though  it  still  bore  a  nominal  subordination  to  the 
church  in  Holland.  It  was  not  until  1794  that  a  General 
Synod  with  complete  autonomy  was  organized,  and 
under  it  a  Particular  Synod. 

Present  Organization  of  the  Church. — In  the  year 
1800,  the  particular  Synod  was  divided  into  the  two 
Particular  Synods  of  New  York  and  Albany.  The 
Particular  Synod  of  Chicago  was  organized  in  1856;  and 
the  Particular  Synod  of  New  Brunswick  in  1869. 
Subordinate  to  these  four  particular  synods  are  thirty- 
five  classes ;  and  under  these  are  the  congregational 
courts  called  consistories.  These  consistories  differ  from 
the  sessions  of  most  Presbyterian  churches  in  that  they 
are  composed  of  both  elders  and  deacons.  Another 
peculiarity  is  that  these  elders  and  deacons  are  chosen  by 
the  congregation  for  only  two  years,  and  half  go  out 


3IO     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

each  year.  These  ex-elders  and  ex-deacons  constitute 
the  "  Great  Consistory  "  which  is  summoned  on  occasion 
to  give  advice  on  important  matters.  The  classis  is 
identical  with  a  presbytery ;  both  the  Particular  Synod 
and  the  General  Synod  are  delegated  bodies,  composed 
of  representatives  from  the  classes,  and  each  meets  annu- 
ally. 

Educational  Institutions. — The  Reformed  Church  has 
had  a  creditable  history  in  the  matter  of  education. 
When  too  feeble  to  support  institutions  of  its  own,  it 
sought  the  benefit  of  schools  founded  by  those  more 
fortunate,  and  in  the  face  of  all  difficulties,  maintained  a 
high  standard  of  education  for  its  ministry.  Its  oldest 
college  was  chartered  in  1770  under  the  title  of  Queen's 
College,  and  was  located  at  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  The 
name  was  changed  in  1825  to  Rutgers  College,  in  honor 
of  a  generous  benefactor.  Colonel  Henry  Rutgers. 
Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  obtained  its  charter 
ii^  1 795  J  ^^^  proved  a  great  blessing  to  the  church  in 
preparing  young  men  for  the  ministry.  Hope  College, 
Holland,  Michigan,  grew  out  of  Holland  Academy,  and 
was  chartered  in  1866. 

The  Reformed  Church  claims  the  oldest  Theological 
Seminary  in  America.  It  began  theological  education 
by  electing  the  Rev.  John  H.  Livingston  professor  of 
theology  in  1784.  He  taught  for  many  years  in  New 
York  City.  In  18 10,  he  was  called  by  the  synod  to  open 
a  theological  seminary  in  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  and  the 
same  year  he  was  elected  president  of  Queen's  (now 
Rutgers)  College.  He  accepted  both  positions,  and 
labored  in  them  with  great  efficiency  until  his  death. 
Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  theological  seminary  at 
New  Brunswick.     It  now  has  eight  fine  buildings,  five 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  311 

endowed  professorships,  a  good  library,  and  all  other 
essentials  to  make  it  one  of  the  best-equipped  institutions 
of  sacred  learning  in  the  land.  At  Holland,  Mich., 
the  church  has  another  school  for  educating  its  ministry, 
the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  which  is  growing 
into  strength  and  enlarged  usefulness  in  connection  with 
Hope  College. 

Doctrine  and  Liturgy. — This  church  is  remarkable  for 
the  stress  it  lays  on  doctrine,  measuring  orthodoxy  by  no 
less  than  three  great  confessional  symbols,  viz.,  the  Belgic 
Confession,  the  Canons  of  Dort,  and  the  Heidelberg 
Catechism.  This  last  is  made  particularly  prominent,  as 
the  church  requires  it  to  be  taught  in  families  and  schools, 
and  makes  a  short  compend  of  it  the  doctrinal  standard 
for  all  who  join  the  church.  Ministers  are  required  to 
subscribe  both  the  Confession  and  Catechism,  and  pledge 
themselves  not  to  teach  any  views  contrary  to  them  with- 
out first  consulting  the  classis  to  which  they  belong. 
The  church  of  this  country  was  but  following  in  the  wake 
of  the  Church  of  Holland  in  receiving  and  enthroning  all 
these  elaborate  doctrinal  standards,  but  it  has  adhered  to 
them  with  a  courage  and  consistency  which  should  put 
the  mother  church  to  shame. 

The  Reformed  Church  in  America  inherited  from 
Holland  a  somewhat  extensive  liturgy,  consisting  of 
sacramental  forms,  forms  of  ordination  of  ministers,  elders 
and  deacons,  of  discipline,  marriage,  consolation  of  the 
sick,  etc.  Some  new  forms  have  been  added,  making  the 
liturgy  very  full  and  complete.  While  these  forms  are 
used  with  a  good  degree  of  uniformity,  they  are  all 
optional  except  those  for  the  sacraments,  for  ordination, 
and  for  discipline. 

The  Christian  Reformed  Church. — This  church  is  so 


312     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

nearly  related  to  the  one  whose  history  we  have  been 
considering  as  not  to  demand  separate  treatment.  It  is 
composed  of  three  constituent  parts.  The  oldest  of  these 
was  a  small  fragment  that  split  off  from  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  in  1822,  giving  as  their  reason  that  the 
church  had  become  corrupted  with  Hopkinsian  error,  and 
had  relaxed  its  discipline.  The  next  oldest  of  the  three 
elements  was  a  part  of  the  Christian  Reformed  Church 
of  Holland  which  emigrated  to  this  country  about  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  centur}^  and  settled  in  the 
western  states.  The  remaining  element  was  a  secession 
from  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  1882  because  the 
General  Synod  refused  to  condemn  freemasonry,  and  to 
reject  from  Christian  fellowship  those  who  belonged  to 
secret,  oath-bound  societies.  These  secessionists  were 
recent  immigrants  from  Holland,  living  in  the  West. 
The  three  elements  came  into  organic  unity  in  1889. 
They  have  nine  classes,  and  something  over  seventeen 
thousand  communicants.  They  hold  the  same  doctrinal 
standards,  and  use  the  same  forms  of  worship  as  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

UNITED  STATES  {Continued) 

THE  GERMAN  REFORMED  CHURCH 

The  official  name  of  this  church  omits  the  word  "  Ger- 
man "  for  the  reason  that  the  church  has  long  since  be- 
come Americanized.  But  the  word  is  convenient  to  dis- 
criminate this  church  from  the  many  other  Reformed 
churches,  and  also  to  indicate  its  historic  origin.  It  roots 
itself  in  the  Reformed  churches  of  Germany  and  Switzer- 
land, and  continues  to  derive  its  growth  and  strength 
almost  exclusively  from  Germanic  sources.  Some  of  the 
material  that  entered  into  the  formation  of  the  church 
was  early  on  the  ground.  By  invitation  of  WiUiam  Penn, 
Francis  Daniel  Pastorius  brought  over  a  colony  of  Ger- 
mans and  settled  Germantown,  Pennsylvania,  in  1683. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  a  stream  of  immigration  that 
has  never  ceased  to  flow,  but  the  volume  of  which  was 
very  small  till  the  second  decade  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. 

The  Great  Influx  Under  Queen  Anne.— The  barbarous 
wars  of  Louis  XIV,  beginning  in  1674  and  waged  from 
time  to  time  until  1704,  desolated  the  country  along  the 
Rhine,  especially  the  Palatinate,  to  such  a  degree  as  to 
leave  many  of  the  wretched  inhabitants  no  choice  save 
starvation,  or  emigration.  In  the  spring  of  1709,  more 
than  thirty  thousand  poor  exiles,  casting  themselves  on 
the  known  sympathy  of  Queen  Anne  and  her  govern- 
ment, made  their  way  to  England.     Many  of  these  were 


314     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

shipped  to  America,  and  formed  small  settlements  at  dif- 
ferent points  from  New  York  to  South  Carolina ;  but  the 
larger  part  ultimately  found  permanent  homes  in  Penn- 
sylvania. From  this  time  forth  the  German  population 
in  the  colonies  grew  rapidly,  and  a  large  part  of  it  be- 
longed to  the  Reformed  Church. 

Early  Religious  Conditions.— No  preachers  came  with 
the  early  immigrants.  For  several  years  the  only  public 
ministrations  of  religion  were  by  the  parochial  school- 
masters. These  taught  the  children  to  sing,  catechized 
them,  read  prayers  at  funerals,  and  sometimes  read  ser- 
mons in  the  public  assembly  on  Sundays.  Peter  Boehm 
was  the  first  preacher  to  minister  to  them,  and  being  him- 
self a  schoolmaster  he  discharged  the  duties  of  preacher 
and  pastor  for  quite  awhile  before  receiving  ordination  to 
the  ministry.  He  came  to  Pennsylvania  in  1720,  and 
his  work  was  principally  in  Montgomery  County.  He 
was  joined  in  1727  by  the  Rev.  George  Michael  Weiss, 
and  they  labored  with  earnestness  and  success  in  gather- 
ing the  scattered  people  into  congregations,  and  in  start- 
ing the  currents  of  regular  church  life. 

Period  of  the  Coetus. — In  the  year  1746,  the  synods 
of  Holland  sent  out  Michael  Schlatter  with  the  special 
object  of  gathering  the  scattered  flocks  into  one  fold,  and 
building  up  a  unified  denominational  structure.  He  was 
richly  endowed  with  gifts  that  fitted  him  for  leadership. 
He  was  patient  and  tactful,  skillful  in  organization  and 
administration.  He  entered  with  determined  zeal,  and 
persistent  purpose  on  his  arduous  mission.  In  the  face 
of  many  difficulties,  he  succeeded  in  harmonizing  con- 
flicting views,  and  in  arousing  considerable  enthusiasm 
for  a  common  cause.  On  the  29th  of  September,  1747, 
a  meeting  was  held  in  Philadelphia,  attended  by  thirty- 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  315 

one  church  officials,  and  a  Coetus  was  organized.  At  this 
time  there  were  forty-six  churches  and  only  five  ordained 
ministers.  As  an  administrative  council,  the  Coetus  was 
of  little  worth,  having  scarcely  any  ecclesiastical  author- 
ity, but  it  formed  a  bond  of  union,  and  marked  a  decided 
step  toward  an  independent  American  church. 

Subordination  of  the  Coetus  to  the  Classis  of  Amster- 
dam.— In  the  long  period  of  distress,  to  which  reference 
has  been  made  when  repeated  wars  laid  waste  the  coun- 
try of  the  Rhine,  thousands  of  the  suffering  people  took 
refuge  in  Holland,  where  they  were  kindly  welcomed. 
Many  of  these  afterwards  came  to  America,  and  became 
members  of  the  German  Reformed  Church.  Naturally 
they  cherished  a  grateful  attachment  for  Holland,  and 
Holland  felt  a  reciprocal  interest  in  them.  These  early 
immigrants  were  very  poor ;  their  native  church  of  the 
Palatinate  was  wounded  nigh  unto  death  and  despoiled 
of  its  goods ;  and  hence  in  looking  across  the  ocean  for 
help  there  was  no  country  to  which  they  could  so  hope- 
fully apply  as  to  Holland.  In  175 1,  in  response  to  an 
appeal,  made  through  Schlatter,  who  went  to  Europe  for 
that  purpose,  the  synods  of  Holland  contributed  ^12,000, 
the  interest  of  which  was  to  be  paid  annually  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  American  churches  and  pastors.  It  was, 
however,  stipulated  that  "  as  a  condition  of  this  aid,  the 
Coetus  was  in  all  things  to  be  subordinate  to  the  Classis 
of  Amsterdam.  Its  minutes,  translated  into  Dutch,  were 
to  be  annually  sent  to  Holland,  and  none  of  its  acts  were 
final  until  they  were  approved." .  Even  with  such  condi- 
tions attached,  the  aid  was  gratefully  received ;  but 
through  many  years  the  church  was  much  hampered,  and 
retarded  in  its  growth  by  these  restrictions  on  its  liberty 
of  action.     It  could  ordain  no  minister ;  nor  could  it  ad- 


3i6     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

mit  to  its  service  ministers  from  other  bodies  without  ex- 
press permission  from  Holland. 

Relation  with  Other  Churches. — Owning  allegiance 
to  the  same  foreign  authority,  drawing  much  of  its  life- 
blood  from  the  same  source,  and  holding  in  part  the  same 
standard  of  doctrine  as  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  it 
was  but  natural  that  these  two  churches  should  live  in 
closest  fraternity.  They  showed  their  affinity  by  many 
mutual  offices  of  kindness,  and  on  various  occasions  ef- 
forts were  made  to  bring  about  organic  unity.  More  than 
once  these  efforts  gave  bright  promise  of  success,  but  one 
insuperable  difficulty  stood  in  the  way — the  unwillingness 
of  the  German  Reformed  Church  to  increase  the  number 
of  its  doctrinal  standards.  Both  churches  were  equally 
attached  to  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  but  this  was 
the  only  test  of  orthodoxy  that  the  German  Reformed 
Church  wished.  It  would  not  consent  to  swear  by  the 
more  elaborate  and  more  rigidly  dogmatic  statements  of 
doctrine  contained  in  the  Belgic  Confession,  and  the  De- 
crees of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  In  its  early  history,  there 
was  perhaps  a  yet  closer  affinity  between  the  German 
Reformed  and  the  Lutheran  churches.  These  were 
brought  near  together  by  identity  of  race  and  language, 
and  by  historical  associations  as  to  origin.  Henry 
Melchior  Miihlenberg  of  the  Lutheran  Church  and  Mi- 
chael Schlatter  were  closely  associated  for  many  years,  en- 
couraged and  assisted  each  other,  and  by  their  united  in- 
fluence promoted  the  closest  fellowship  between  their 
churches.  It  was  said  in  reference  to  this  period  :  "  If  a 
Pennsylvania  farmer  had  been  asked  to  point  out  the  dif- 
ference between  the  Reformed  and  the  Lutheran  churches, 
he  would  probably  have  said :  '  In  the  Lord's  Prayer  the 
Reformed  say  Unser  Vater,  and  the  Lutherans  say  Vater 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  317 

Unser ;  and  further  on  in  the  same  prayer  the  Lutherans 
say,  Erlose  uns  von  dem  Uebel,and  the  Reformed,  Erlose 
uns  von  dem  Bosen.'  "  These  two  churches  went  so  far 
in  cooperative  labors  as  to  estabhsh  their  first  college  in 
common.  This  was  FrankHn  College  at  Lancaster,  Pa., 
founded  in  1787.  In  Germany,  a  union  between  the  Re- 
formed and  Lutheran  churches  was  effected  in  1 817;  and 
this  stimulated  efforts  to  bring  about  a  union  between  the 
two  churches  in  this  country.  The  very  next  year,  they 
agreed  on  a  proposition  to  establish  a  joint  theological 
seminary  in  connection  with  Franklin  College.  But  these 
efforts  to  merge  the  two  churches  into  one  revealed  cer- 
tain conditions  which  made  union,  for  the  time,  seem 
unadvisable,  and  gradually  they  drifted  further  apart. 

Pietistic  Movement  Giving  Birth  to  the  "United 
Brethren." — Two  tendencies  were  early  manifest  in  the 
Coetus — one  toward  a  stereotyped  conservatism  ;  and  the 
other  toward  a  somewhat  lawless  evangelism.  Some 
members  of  the  Coetus  thought  the  supreme  business  of 
the  church  was  to  preserve  purity  of  doctrine,  and  keep 
alive  the  traditions  of  the  fathers.  Others  felt  the  bur- 
den of  souls,  and  cared  comparatively  Httle  for  matters 
of  doctrine  and  order.  These  latter  were  known  as 
pietists.  Their  most  distinguished  leader  was  Phillip 
William  Otterbein,  who  had  been  brought  over  from 
Germany  by  Schlatter  in  1752.  When  Francis  Asbury 
was  sent  to  this  country  by  John  Wesley  in  1771  to  pre- 
side over  the  young  and  tender  shoot  of  Methodism,  he 
very  soon  came  into  contact  with  Otterbein,  and  found  in 
him  a  kindred  spirit.  It  was  from  Asbury  that  Otter- 
bein received  the  suggestion  to  organize  in  the  Reformed 
churches  societies  for  the  promotion  of  personal  piety. 
The  measure  seemed  to  be  demanded  by  the  distressingly 


3i8     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

low  state  of  spiritual  life,  all  idea  of  regeneration  being 
regarded  as  mere  "  pietistic  whimery."  As  preachers 
were  scarce,  and  an  increase  through  ordinary  methods 
was  unattainable,  Otterbein  and  his  coworkers  thought 
the  best  thing  to  do  in  the  circumstances  was  to  form 
"  classes  "  and  place  "  leaders  "  over  them  after  the  Meth- 
odist fashion.  In  all  the  Reformed  churches  in  Mary- 
land, except  the  First  Church  of  Baltimore,  and  in  some 
churches  in  southern  Pennsylvania,  these  classes  were  or- 
ganized, and  semiannual  conferences  were  held  to  hear 
reports  from  their  leaders.  It  was  no  more  the  purpose 
of  Otterbein  to  form  a  new  denomination  among  the 
Germans  than  it  was  the  purpose  of  Wesley  to  form  a 
new  denomination  among  the  Enghsh.  But  in  each  case 
the  movement  went  beyond  the  intention  of  its  promoters. 
An  intimate  and  honored  associate  of  Otterbein's  in  the 
special  work  of  deepening  the  spiritual  Hfe  of  the  churches, 
and  in  giving  direction  to  this  quickened  spiritual  life  was 
Martin  Boehm.  He  was  a  Mennonite,  uneducated,  but 
able,  resourceful  and  aflame  with  evangelical  zeal.  At 
the  conclusion  of  one  of  his  moving  discourses,  Otterbein 
grasped  his  hand  and  with  cordial  fervor  said,  "  We  are 
brethren."  From  this  incident  came  the  name  '<  United 
Brethren."  Many  of  these  societies,  some  from  the  Ger- 
man Reformed,  and  some  from  the  Mennonites,  gradually 
drew  away  from  the  churches  with  which  they  were  con- 
nected, and  drawing  together  formed  a  distinct  denomi- 
nation. 

Change  of  the  Coetus  Into  a  Synod. — During  the  war 
for  independence,  the  Germans  were,  with  few  exceptions, 
enthusiastically  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  colonies. 
They  suffered  much  in  loss  of  property,  and  in  religious 
and  ecclesiastical  demoralization.     A  prime  trouble  with 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  319 

the  German  Reformed  Church  had  ever  been  a  lack  of 
preachers.  It  was  dependent  upon  Holland,  and 
Holland  was  too  far  away  to  know  fully  or  feel  deeply 
the  needs  of  the  struggling  congregations,  which  it  per- 
sisted in  holding  in  leading  strings.  The  synods  of  Hol- 
land were  faithful  in  paying  the  regular  annuities,  and 
as  the  beneficiurn  and  the  control  were  tied  together  it  re- 
quired no  little  courage  and  self-denial  for  the  Coetus  to 
assert  its  right  to  independence.  But  the  necessity  for 
more  preachers  became  increasingly  urgent,  and  so  pain- 
fully was  this  necessity  felt  that  as  early  as  1772,  the 
Coetus  ventured  to  stretch  its  authority  and  administer 
the  rite  of  ordination.  Its  conduct  was  looked  upon  with 
disfavor,  however,  by  the  jealous  patron  across  the  ocean. 
But  finally  the  restraint  became  intolerable,  and  in  the 
year  1 791,  the  Coetus  passed  the  following  resolution : 
"  Resolved,  That  the  Coetus  has  the  right  at  all  times  to 
examine  and  ordain  those  who  offer  themselves  as  candi- 
dates for  the  ministry,  without  asking,  or  waiting  for  per- 
mission to  do  so  from  the  fathers  in  Holland."  Having 
at  length  attained  its  majority,  and  cast  off  parental  au- 
thority, it  must  of  course,  henceforth  look  to  itself  for 
support.  This  was  perhaps  as  great  a  gain  as  its  inde- 
pendence of  action,  for  no  church,  leading  the  life  of  a 
parasite,  can  develop  either  aggressive  strength  or  high 
spiritual  qualities.  The  next  year  after  asserting  its  right 
of  autonomy,  a  synodical  constitution  was  formed  and 
the  synod  held  its  first  meeting,  April  27,  1793,  at  Lan- 
caster, Pa.,  with  thirteen  ministers  present.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  at  this  time  the  church  numbered  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-eight  congregations,  and  fifteen  thou- 
sand communicants.  It  is  further  stated  that  at  least 
fifty-five   per   cent    of  the    congregations    were  vacant. 


320     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

These  were  scattered  over  a  wide  extent  of  country ;  but 
the  chief  strength  of  the  church  was  in  Pennsylvania. 

Organization  of  the  Church  Completed. — After  taking 
matters  in  its  own  hands,  the  church  was  not  slow  to  in- 
crease its  ministerial  force  by  raising  up  a  native  ministry. 
At  first  candidates  were  instructed  privately,  and  later 
schools  of  theology  were  established.  The  gain  in  preach- 
ers was  soon  noticeable ;  many  charges  long  vacant  were 
supplied  with  the  means  of  grace ;  and  stronger  currents 
of  life  were  sent  pulsing  through  all  the  church.  Its 
progress  as  compared  with  former  periods  was  gratifying. 
In  1 8 19,  the  synod  divided  itself  up  into  eight  classes,  or 
presbyteries,  retaining,  however,  the  power  of  ordaining 
ministers  in  its  own  hands.  When  the  country  west  of 
the  Alleghanies  was  opened  for  settlers,  the  Germans 
crossed  the  mountains  in  considerable  numbers.  They 
organized  churches,  and  formed  a  classis  in  Ohio.  This 
classis  judged  that  it  could  do  the  work  laid  to  its  hand 
more  effectively  if  it  were  granted  the  right  to^ ordain 
candidates  for  the  ministry.  It  sent  an  overture  to  the 
synod  asking  this  privilege.  The  synod  refused  the  re- 
quest, and  this  refusal  led  to  the  organization  of  the  In- 
dependent Synod  of  Ohio.  For  several  years  there  was 
no  organic  connection  between  these  two  synods,  and  it 
looked  as  if  the  German  Reformed  Church  might  be  per- 
manently divided  into  two  distinct  bodies.  But  in  1844, 
delegates  from  the  two  synods  began  to  meet  in  triennial 
conventions,  merely  for  conference.  Happily  this  con- 
vention gave  place  in  1863  to  the  General  Synod,  a 
court  representing  the  unity  of  the  whole  church,  and  ex- 
ercising supreme  authority.  This  gave  the  finishing 
touch  to  the  church's  machinery  of  government,  the  four 
courts  being,  in  ascending  gradation,  Consistory,  Classis, 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  321 

District  Synod,  General  Synod.  Since  the  middle  of  last 
century  large  migrations  from  Germany  have  poured  into 
the  middle  West  and  the  Northwest.  The  Reformed 
Church  has  pushed  its  home  mission  work  with  commen- 
dable energy,  and  as  a  result  several  new  synods  and  classes 
have  been  added  to  its  rolls.  The  General  Synod  now 
comprises  eight  District  Synods,  of  which  five  are  pre- 
dominantly English,  and  three  are  German.  These  eight 
synods  are  divided  into  fifty-seven  classes,  containing 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  communicants. 

Educational  Institutions.— On  the  6th  of  June,  1787, 
Franklin  College  was  opened  at  Lancaster,  Pa.  As  al- 
ready noted,  it  was  a  joint  enterprise  of  Reformed  and 
Lutheran.  In  the  impoverished  condition  of  their  peo- 
ple at  that  time  neither  church  felt  equal  to  the  task  of 
planting  and  building  up  a  college.  Their  needs  and 
aims  being  the  same  they  found  no  difficulty  in  cooperat- 
ing. The  first  president  was  a  Lutheran,  and  the  first 
vice-president  a  German  Reformed  pastor.  Eminent  cit- 
izens of  Pennsylvania,  not  connected  with  either  church, 
were  glad  to  lend  their  aid.  The  largest  individual  con- 
tributor was  Benjamin  Frankhn,  and  this  furnished  a  good 
reason  for  ornamenting  the  young  college  with  his  illus- 
trious name.  This  was  a  beautiful  and  promising  begin- 
ning ;  but  the  fulfillment  did  not  answer  to  the  promise. 
Responsibility  was  too  much  divided — the  outside  com- 
munity having  been  taken  in  as  a  third  partner.  Not 
till  the  Reformed  Church  gained  full  control,  by  buying 
out  the  Lutherans,  and  securing  a  concession  of  outside 
interests,  did  the  college  enter  upon  a  career  of  pros- 
perity. 

The  Theological  Seminary  of  the  German  Reformed 
Church   was  opened  March  11,  1825,  at  Carlisle,  Pa.     It 


322     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

proved  to  be  quite  a  peripatetic  institution.  In  1829  it 
was  moved  to  York,  Pa.;  in  1837  to  Mercersburg,  Pa., 
and  finally  in  1871  to  Lancaster,  Pa.  While  at  Carlisle, 
it  was  closely  associated  with  Dickinson,  a  Presbyterian 
College.  While  it  was  located  at  York  there  grew  up 
in  connection  with  it  a  classical  high  school  under  the 
fostering  care  of  Dr.  Rauch,  a  man  of  fine  scholarship 
and  of  exceptional  ability.  It  was  the  removal  of  his 
school,  transformed  into  Marshall  College,  to  Mercers- 
burg in  1835,  that  carried  the  Theological  Seminary  there 
two  years  later.  In  like  manner  it  was  the  removal  of 
Marshall  College  to  Lancaster,  where  it  was  consolidated 
with  Franklin  College,  that  caused  the  removal  of  the 
seminary  to  that  point. 

The  church  has  other  important  institutions  for  educa- 
ting its  young  people  of  both  sexes,  and  for  training  its 
ministers.  The  most  important  are  Heidelberg  Univer- 
sity, and  the  Western  Theological  Seminary,  at  Tiffin, 
O. ;  Ursinus  College,  Collegeville,  Pa. ;  Catawba  College, 
Newton,  N.  C. ;  and  colleges  for  women  at  Allentown, 
Pa.,  and  Frederick,  Md. 

The  Mercersburg  Controversy. — While  the  Theolog- 
ical Seminary  was  located  at  Mercersburg,  it  was  served 
by  two  men  of  rare  genius  and  rich  scholarship — 
J.  W.  Nevin  and  Philip  SchafT.  Dr.  Nevin  was  reared  in 
the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  was  occupying  a  chair  in 
the  Allegheny  Seminary  at  the  time  he  was  called  to  the 
professorship  of  theology  in  Mercersburg.  This  was  in 
1840.  Only  four  years  later  Dr.  Schafif  came  from  Ger- 
many to  be  his  colleague  and  sympathetic  coworker. 
They  were  both  deeply  imbued  and  thoroughly  fas- 
cinated with  recent  developments  of  German  theology 
and  philosophy,  as  these  developments  found  expression 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  323 

in  such  leaders  of  thought  as  Schliermacher  and  Hegel. 
They  set  themselves  the  task  of  giving  to  America,  and 
especially  to  the  German  Reformed  Church,  the  fruits  of 
their  German  scholarship.     Their  purpose  was  to  infuse 
fresh    vitality    into    theology;   exalt  the  sacraments  as 
channels  of  grace ;  and  enrich  the  worship  by  providing 
a  more  satisfactory  liturgy.      Some  of  their  cherished 
ideas    were    novel    and    provoked    strong    opposition. 
Dr.  Schaff's  inaugural  address   subjected  him  to  a  trial 
for  heresy.     While  he  was  triumphantly  acquitted,  the 
apprehensions  of  the  more  conservative  brethren  were  by 
no  means  laid.     Dr.  Nevin,  when  serving  on  a  committee 
to  revise  the  liturgy  of  the  church,  took  strong  ground 
for  what  he  called  an  "  altar  liturgy."     Hostility  to  his 
views,  which  seemed  to  smack  of  Romanism,  became 
very  bitter,  and  a  serious  schism  seemed  imminent.     It 
was  averted  however  through  the  labors  of  a  "  Peace 
Commission."     This  able  body  succeeded  in  harmonizing 
all  views  in  the  ''  Directory  of  Worship  "  which  it  pre- 
pared and  presented  to  the  church  in  1881.     This  con- 
tains   elaborate  forms  of  worship  which  are  generally 
used  by  those  who  conduct  the  devotions  of  the  people, 
for  the  German  Reformed  Church  has  always  been  dis- 
tinctly liturgical ;  but  these   forms  are  optional,  as  it  is 
contrary  to  the  very  genius  of  this  church  to  lay  strong 
restraint  on  individual  liberty. 

Doctrine  of  the  Church.— Its  only  official  standard  of 
doctrine  is  the  Heidelberg  Catechism.  This  it  inherited 
from  the  church  in  the  fatherland,  and  deems  itself  amply 
rich  in  the  possession  of  this  one  doctrinal  formulary. 
The  Heidelberg  Catechism  is  not  so  remarkable  for  its 
logical  precision  as  for  its  devotional  fervor.  It  is  de- 
signed rather  to  guide  and  develop  Christian  experience 


324     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

than  to  inform  the  intellect.  The  sharp-edged  dog- 
matism, which  is  a  virtue  in  a  purely  doctrinal  symbol,  is 
absent  from  this  Catechism.  The  result  is  that  those 
who  use  it  as  the  sole  test  of  orthodoxy  do  not  regard 
themselves  as  bound  to  a  rigid  system  of  Calvinism,  and 
exhibit  a  wider  latitude  of  doctrinal  views  than  is  com- 
mon in  the  great  family  of  Reformed  Churches. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

UNITED  STATES  (^Continued) 

CHURCHES   OF   SCOTTISH    DISSENTING    ORIGIN 

There  are  several  churches  which  fall  under  this  head. 
They  have  substantially  the  same  origin,  cherish  the 
same  principles,  and  are  animated  by  the  same  spirit. 
Their  histories  have  become  much  blended,  and  to  an 
outsider  there  seems  no  sufficient  reason  why  they  should 
not  long  since  have  been  merged  into  one  church.  But 
the  Scotch  have  ever  shown  a  remarkable  disposition  to 
chng  to  ''  every  jot  and  tittle  of  the  law  till  all  be  ful- 
filled." Heaven  and  earth  may  pass  away,  but  their 
party  shibboleths  must  not  pass  away.  In  order  to  clear- 
ness it  is  necessary  to  begin  with  the  origin  of  these 
churches  in  Scotland.  It  is  in  their  origin  that  we  find 
those  principles  which  have  continued  to  impart  to  them 
their  distinctive  characters. 

The  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church. — We  trace  the 
stream  of  this  church's  history  to  its  fountain  head  in 
Richard  Cameron,  and  Donald  Cargill.  These  were  the 
heroic  leaders  of  those  uncompromising  covenanters, 
who  met  in  1680  at  Sanquhar,  and  posted  a  public  proc- 
lamation, renouncing  their  allegiance  to  Charles  II. 
They  assigned  as  the  reason  for  their  bold  act  that  the 
king,  by  violating  his  solemn  engagements  to  his  sub- 
jects, by  his  treachery  and  tyranny,  had  forfeited  all 
right  to  the  crown.  Both  noble  leaders  lost  their  lives 
in     defending    their    principles ;     but    their    followers, 

325 


326     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

popularly  known  as  Cameronians,  held  together  and 
perpetuated  their  doctrines  and  spirit.  Without  preach- 
ers to  minister  to  them,  they  organized  praying  societies, 
and  by  a  system  of  general  correspondence,  preserved 
their  unity  and  kept  alive  the  faith. 

By  and  by,  England  and  Scotland  grew  into  the  same 
conviction  with  the  Cameronians,  viz.,  that  a  king  by 
treachery  and  tyranny  forfeits  the  allegiance  of  his  sub- 
jects. Acting  on  this  conviction,  they  expelled  the 
Stuarts  from  the  throne,  and  gave  the  crown  to  William 
and  Mary.  This  brought  relief  from  persecution  to  the 
covenanters ;  but  did  not  end  their  contentions.  By  the 
Revolution  Settlement  of  1690,  Presbyterianism  was 
once  again  established  by  law  as  the  National  Church. 
The  disciples  of  Cameron  refused,  however,  to  accept 
the  settlement,  because  of  certain  Erastian  elements. 
To  the  king  and  parHament  were  given  such  power  in 
the  management  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  as  was  incon- 
sistent with  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  sole  headship.  De- 
clining to  become  a  part  of  the  National  Church,  the 
covenanters  maintained  a  separate  existence  through 
their  praying  societies.  After  the  lapse  of  sixteen  years, 
one  preacher  was  found  to  endorse  their  views.  This 
was  the  Rev.  John  McMillan,  who  joined  them  in  1706. 
It  was  not  till  1743  that  another  was  added.  In  that  year 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Nair  cast  in  his  lot  with  the  feeble  but  faith- 
ful flock ;  and  he  and  McMillan,  together  with  a  few  rul- 
ing elders,  organized  a  presbytery,  and  thus  gave  birth  to 
the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church. 

The  Associate  Presbytery. — The  history  of  this 
church  had  its  beginning  in  the  secession  from  the  National 
Church  of  Scotland  in  1733.  This  secession  was  led  by 
Ebenezer  Erskine,  and  was  due,  in  large  measure,  to  the 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  327 

evil  workings  of  those  Erastian  principles,  against  which 
the  inflexible  Cameronians  had  so  vigorously  protested. 
The  Revolution  Settlement  restricted  the  rights  of  the 
people  in  the  calling  of  their  pastors,  giving  to  certain 
land-owners  undue  power  in  this  matter,  a  power  which 
they  could  use,  and  frequently  did  use,  to  the  great 
offense  and  hurt  of  the  people.  Erskine  pleaded  boldly 
for  reform,  and  by  so  doing  brought  upon  him  the 
judicial  censures  of  a  church  that  had  lost  much  of  the 
devout  and  liberty-loving  spirit  of  the  fathers.  He  was 
joined  by  three  ministers,  who  sympathized  with  him  in 
his  struggle,  and  all  these  being  suspended  from  the 
ministry  and  extruded  from  their  charges,  met  together 
on  the  6th  day  of  December  1733  and  constituted  them- 
selves into  the  Associate  Presbytery.  Thus  was  formed 
another  distinct  Presbyterian  Church  in  Scotland. 

From  these  two  churches,  the  Reformed  and  the 
Associate,  have  descended  a  number  of  churches  in 
America.  The  children  continue  to  be  more  numerous 
than  the  parents,  notwithstanding  several  unions  have 
taken  place. 

Planting  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America. — 
In  the  stream  of  immigration  that  set  in  from  Ireland 
in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  many 
Covenanters,  who  had  previously  fled  from  Scotland  and 
taken  refuge  in  Ireland,  found  their  way  to  America. 
They  organized  their  praying  societies  and  their  system 
of  general  correspondence,  and  thus  continued  their 
separate  church  life  in  the  new  world.  The  first  preacher 
to  minister  to  them  was  Alexander  Craighead,  a  member 
of  the  Presbyterian  Synod  of  Philadelphia.  He  gathered 
a  few  congregations  together,  and  in  the  year  1743  joined 
with  them  in  renewing  the  covenants.     His  presbytery 


328     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

called  him  to  account  for  it,  and  renouncing  the  presby- 
tery's authority,  he  attached  himself  to  the  Reformed 
Church.  One  of  the  first  services  he  rendered  the 
church  was  to  write  to  the  newly-formed  presbytery  in 
Scotland  to  send  a  minister  to  his  assistance.  In  re- 
sponse to  this  appeal,  they  sent  over  the  Rev.  John  Cuth- 
bertson  ;  but  before  his  arrival,  Craighead  withdrew,  and 
renewed  his  connection  with  his  former  church.  Cuth- 
bertson  had  to  blaze  the  way  for  the  infant  denomina- 
tion with  no  one  to  assist  him.  Most  bravely  and 
earnestly  did  he  give  himself  to  the  trying  task,  '*  riding 
horseback  during  his  first  year  2,500  miles,  preaching 
120  days,  baptizing  no  children,  and  marrying  ten 
couples."  He  held  his  first  communion  on  the  23d  day 
of  August,  1752,  at  Stony  Ridge,  when  250  commu- 
nicants sat  down  together  at  the  Lord's  Table.  This 
was  exactly  one  year  after  he  landed  on  these  shores. 
He  continued  to  labor  alone  for  many  years  with  the 
same  strenuous  persistency,  and  with  marked  effective- 
ness. 

In  the  year  1773,  he  was  joined  by  two  fellow- 
laborers  from  Scotland,  the  Revs.  Matthew  Lind,  and 
Alexander  Dobbin.  In  March  of  the  next  year  they 
organized  the  Reformed  Presbytery  of  America. 

Planting  of  the  Associate  Church  in  America. — The 
same  current  of  immigration  that  brought  so  many 
Scotch  and  Scotch-Irish  to  America  in  the  beginning 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  to  furnish  the  foundation  ma- 
terial of  other  churches,  brought  quite  a  number  whose 
affiliations  were  with  the  Associate  Church  of  Scot- 
land. At  that  day  when  any  doctrinal  difference  was 
deemed  sufficient  by  a  Scotchman  to  justify  a  division  of 
the  church,  or  the  perpetuation  of  a  division,  it  hardly 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  329 

occurred  to  these  followers  of  Erskine  to  seek  a  home 
in  some  church  already  on  the  ground.  They  held 
aloof,  and  in  1753  sent  a  petition  to  their  mother 
church  in  Scotland  for  ministers.  The  petition  was 
successful,  and  two  ministers,  Alexander  Gallatly  and 
Andrew  Arnot  were  sent  over  by  the  Anti-Burgher 
Synod,  one  of  the  two  synods  into  which  the  church 
of  Erskine  had  by  this  time  split.  On  the  2d  day 
of  November,  1753,  the  three  ministers  organized  the 
Associate  Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania.  Other  preachers 
followed  in  considerable  numbers  during  the  next  few 
years ;  and  the  church  grew  to  such  dimensions  that  by 
the  year  1776  it  was  deemed  advisible  to  organize  the 
Presbytery  of  New  York.  This  presbytery  included  all 
the  ministers  in  New  York  and  New  England. 

Union  of  the  Reformed  and  Associate  Churches. — The 
members  of  these  two  churches  were  of  the  same  blood, 
of  the  same  national  origin,  their  dissent  from  the  Na- 
tional church  of  Scotland  had  been  for  substantially  the 
same  reasons, — dissatisfaction  with  the  power  of  the  state 
over  the  church,  and  the  increasing  laxity  of  doctrine  in 
the  National  Church.  On  comparing  notes,  they  could 
discover  no  sufficient  ground,  Scotchmen  though  they 
were,  for  remaining  apart ;  and  they  did  discover  some 
good  reasons  why  they  should  become  one.  They  oc- 
cupied, in  good  part,  the  same  territory,  preached  to  the 
same  people,  and  held  the  same  standards  of  doctrine. 
Steps  were  taken  in  1777  to  bring  about  closer  relations, 
and  these  resulted  in  1782  in  a  happy  union.  "  Behold, 
how  good  and  how  pleasant  it  is  for  brethren  to  dwell 
together  in  unity."  The  names  of  both  the  uniting 
churches  were  used  to  designate  the  resultant  church, 
and   henceforth   the   Associate    Reformed    Church    will 


330     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

keep  alive  the  honorable  traditions  of  its  noble  an- 
cestry. 

Resuscitation  of  the  Reformed  Church. — Every  min- 
ister of  the  Reformed  Church  went  into  the  union  with 
the  Associate  Church ;  but  a  few  of  the  congregations 
refused  to  go  with  the  ministers.  They  had  learned  from 
their  fathers  in  Scotland  and  also  in  this  country  how  to 
live  without  preachers.  It  was  nothing  to  them  that 
they  were  a  little  flock,  remembering  that  it  was  to  the 
"  little  flock "  that  Christ  had  promised  the  kingdom. 
Hence,  when  they  were  deserted  by  all  their  ministers, 
and  by  all  their  strong  and  well-organized  congregations, 
the  few  weak  and  isolated  societies  held  on  their  way, 
walking  in  the  old  paths.  They  reported  the  state  of 
affairs  to  the  mother  church  in  Scotland,  and  asked  for  a 
new  supply  of  preachers.  The  mother  church  sent  a 
minister  over  to  examine  the  field  carefully,  and  report. 
What  it  was  he  saw,  and  what  it  was  he  reported  that  made 
it  seem  righteous  and  expedient  to  encourage  these  feeble 
societies  in  their  aloofness,  and  to  nurse  them  back  into 
denominational  church  life,  it  would  be  difficult  at  this 
late  day  to  conjecture.  But  so  it  was.  As  the  result  of 
its  reconnoissance,  the  church  in  Scotland  sent  over  one 
minister  in  1791,  and  another  the  next  year.  These  were 
about  all  it  could  spare  without  committing  suicide.  But 
by  1 798,  there  were  enough  ministers  on  this  side  the  ocean 
to  organize  a  new  Reformed  Presbytery  of  America.  It 
has  continued  to  live,  and  has  never  grown  less  from  that 
day  to  this. 

Division  of  the  Church  in  1833.— It  has  been  the  tradi- 
tional policy  of  this  church  to  demonstrate  its  loyalty  to 
truth  by  division,  rather  than  by  union.  It  found  oc- 
casion  in    1833   to   put  this   policy   into  practice.     The 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


33^ 


most  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  Reformed  Church 
is  its  attitude  toward  civil  government.  It  holds  that 
Christ  is  not  only  Head  of  the  Church  but  also  of  the 
state,  and  refuses  close  incorporation  with  any  civil  power 
that  does  not  make  express  recognition  of  Christ's  su- 
premacy. Because  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
does  not  acknowledge  God,  nor  tender  national  homage 
to  Christ,  the  Reformed  Church  will  not  suffer  its  mem- 
bers either  to  vote,  or  to  hold  office.  Owing  to  some 
softening,  or  broadening  of  views,  a  party  grew  up  in  the 
church  that  was  unwilling  longer  to  occupy  this  extreme 
position.  The  view  of  this  party  is  that  while  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  is  very  defective,  and  this  fact 
is  much  to  be  deplored,  yet  inasmuch  as  it  is  neither  in- 
fidel nor  immoral,  members  of  the  church  should  be  per- 
mitted to  take  part  in  the  affairs  of  Government  to  the  ex- 
tent of  voting  and  holding  office.  After  a  few  years  of 
discussion,  the  antagonisms  of  parties  became  sufficiently 
marked  to  make  division  appropriate.  It  is  an  unsettled 
question  as  to  which  party  seceded.  The  legal  name 
of  the  strict  constructionists,  or  Old  Side  is  "  The  Synod 
of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States 
of  North  America."  The  legal  name  of  the  New  Side  is 
*'  The  General  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church 
in  North  America."  The  former  has  about  ten  thousand 
members,  and  the  latter  about  five  thousand. 

Resuscitation  of  the  Associate  Church. — Not  to  be 
outdone  by  their  brethren  of  the  Reformed  Church,  a 
few  members  of  the  Associate  Church  refused  to  go  into 
the  union  of  1782.  At  the  meeting  of  the  Associate 
Presbytery  of  Pennsylvania,  in  June,  1782,  when  the 
basis  of  union  with  the  Reformed  Church  was  adopted 
by  the  presbytery,  two  ministers  and  three  ruling  elders 


332     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

protested  against  it,  went  out  and  organized  themselves 
into  a  new  presbytery  and  took  the  old  name,  claiming 
to  be  the  legal  successor  of  the  Associate  Presbytery  of 
Pennsylvania  for  the  reason  that  they  had  remained  true 
to  the  ancient  faith  and  loyal  to  the  ancient  landmarks. 
The  mother  church  in  Scotland  approved  their  course, 
and  sent  over  preachers  to  strengthen  the  fluttering  pulse, 
and  to  give  the  Associate  Church  in  America  a  new  and 
continuous  lease  on  life.  The  church  spread  South  and 
West,  presbyteries  being  formed  in  Kentucky  and  the 
Carohnas.  By  the  year  1801,  the  growth  had  been  such 
as  to  make  it  advisable  to  change  the  form  of  organiza- 
tion. The  original  presbytery  was  changed  into  the  As- 
sociate Synod  of  North  America,  and  the  whole  church, 
acknowledging  this  synod  as  the  supreme  court,  was 
divided  into  four  presbyteries. 

Some  Peculiarities  of  the  Associate  Church. — The 
ministers  of  this  Church  were  warmly  attached  to  the 
old  Covenants  of  Scotland ;  and  they  taught  that  the 
obligation  of  these  Covenants,  in  so  far  as  the  duties 
which  they  enjoined  could  be  discharged  in  this  country, 
was  binding  on  the  descendants  of  those  who  had  sworn 
them  in  the  old  country.  Moreover  the  presbyteries,  and 
the  synod,  after  its  formation,  engaged  from  time  to  time 
in  public  solemn  covenanting,  and  encouraged  all  their 
congregations  to  do  likewise.  This  custom  was  pre- 
served into  a  period  as  late  as  1830.  At  an  early  date 
the  synod  took  strong  ground  against  slavery.  In  181 1, 
it  demanded  that  all  members  of  the  Associate  Church 
should  free  their  slaves,  and  if  any  one  refused,  he  should 
be  excluded  from  the  fellowship  of  the  church.  This  de- 
mand was  not  generally  complied  with,  and  the  subject 
continued   to    occupy  the  attention  of  the  church.     In 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  333 

1840,  a  letter  was  addressed  to  congregations  in  the 
South,  setting  forth  their  duties  in  respect  to  emancipa- 
tion. The  moderator  of  synod  was  sent  to  read  this 
letter  to  the  congregations.  The  result  was  a  riot  in  one 
of  the  congregations  in  South  Carolina,  and  the  violent 
expulsion  of  the  preacher  from  the  state.  The  uncom- 
promising attitude  of  the  church  on  this  subject  de- 
stroyed its  promising  beginnings  in  the  South,  and  con- 
fined its  growth  to  the  regions  north  of  the  Ohio 
River.  The  Associate  Church  was  also  opposed  to  se- 
cret societies,  barring  from  its  membership  Freemasons 
and  Odd  Fellows,  and  notwithstanding  its  ardent  cham- 
pionship of  temperance  reform,  it  warned  its  mem- 
bers against  the  Sons  of  Temperance  because  of  their 
secrecy. 

The  Associate  Church  lost  its  identity  in  1858  to  be- 
come a  part  of  the  United  Presbyterian  Church. 

The  Associate  Reformed  Church.— It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  this  church  came  into  existence  in  1782,  by 
the  union  of  the  Associate  and  the  Reformed  churches. 
A  fragment  of  each  church  refused  to  enter  the  union, 
but  the  fusion  gave  birth  to  a  church  of  considerable 
strength,  scattered  over  a  territory  embracing  Pennsyl- 
vania, New  York  and  New  England.  Its  organization  at 
first  consisted  of  a  synod  as  the  supreme  court,  and  three 
presbyteries.  In  1786,  the  congregations  of  New  Eng- 
land were  set  off  into  the  Presbytery  of  Londonderry. 
This  presbytery  seems  to  have  become  affected  with  the 
spirit  of  independency,  characteristic  of  the  Congrega- 
tional churches  by  which  it  was  surrounded.  F'ailing  for 
a  number  of  years  to  send  delegates  to  synod,  and  mak- 
ing no  suitable  response  to  the  admonitions  of  synod 
touching  the  matter,  the  synod  felt  constrained  in  1801 


;4 


HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


to  renounce  connection  with  it,  and  to  disclaim  all  re- 
sponsibility for  its  transactions. 

This  was  the  end  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church 
in  New  England  for  many  years. 

Changes  in  Form  of  Organization. — The  church  had  a 
healthy  growth,  and  lengthened  its  cords  until  it 
was  represented  in  all  the  states  from  New  York  to 
Georgia.  Owing  to  distance  and  difficulties  of  travel,  a 
change  of  organization  was  deemed  advisable.  In  1 802, 
the  whole  church  was  divided  into  four  synods  of  two 
presbyteries  each,  and  these  four  were  confederated  into 
one  General  Synod.  The  first  meeting  of  the  General 
Synod,  which  was  a  delegated  body,  was  held  on  the 
30th  of  May,  1804,  in  Greencastle,  Franklin  County, 
Pennsylvania.  Subsequent  meetings  were  uniformly 
held  in  Philadelphia.  It  was  a  task  of  no  little  difficulty 
for  delegates  from  the  regions  farthest  south  and  west  to 
attend  its  annual  sessions.  As  a  result,  these  regions 
were  poorly  represented,  and  as  a  further  result  the  power 
exercised  by  the  General  Synod  came  to  be  exercised  by 
a  few  men.  In  a  short  while,  serious  complaint  de- 
veloped. The  Synod  of  Scioto,  embracing  all  the 
churches  west  of  the  Alleghanies,  petitioned  the  General 
Synod  to  hold  its  meetings  at  least  occasionally  farther 
westward ;  or  if  not  this  to  divide  the  church  into  two  or 
more  independent  parts.  The  synod  refused  both  re- 
quests. Whereupon  in  1820,  the  Synod  of  Scioto  with- 
drew from  the  General  Synod,  and  constituted  itself  an 
independent  tribunal  with  the  title,  "  The  Associate  Re- 
formed Synod  of  the  West."  The  next  year,  the  Synod 
of  the  Carolinas  asked  and  obtained  consent  of  the 
General  Synod  to  set  up  an  independent  authority  as 
the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South.     This  left 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  335 

only  the  two  Synods  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  to 
constitute  the  General  Synod. 

An  Attempt  at  Union  with  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
— At  the  first  meeting  of  the  General  Synod  after  it  had 
been  reduced  by  the  withdrawal  of  the  two  synods  West 
and  South,  it  received  an  overture  from  the  General  As- 
sembly of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  proposing  the  organic 
union  of  the  two  bodies.  The  General  Synod  looked 
upon  the  overture  favorably,  and  sent  it  down  to  its 
presbyteries  for  their  action.  When  it  met  on  the  1 5th  of 
May,  the  next  year,  1822,  the  answers  from  the  presbyter- 
ies showed  that  three  fifths  of  them  were  opposed  to 
union  with  the  Presbyterian  Church.  In  the  face  of  this 
the  synod  voted  by  a  majority  of  two  in  favor  of  union, 
and  proceeded  at  once  to  carry  it  into  effect.  Accord- 
ingly the  library  and  funds  of  the  theological  seminary  in 
New  York  were  removed  to  Princeton,  New  Jersey,  and 
the  clerk  of  synod  was  ordered  to  deposit  his  minute- 
book  and  other  documents  with  the  session  of  the  Spruce 
Street  Church,  Philadelphia,  "  subject  to  the  further  dis- 
posal of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church."  Obviously  this  was  a  very  arbitrary  and  high- 
handed procedure  on  the  part  of  the  General  Synod. 
Because  some  of  the  presbyteries  were  poorly  represented 
in  the  meeting,  it  had  an  accidental  majority  in  favor  of 
union,  and  proceeded  to  override  the  known  will  of  the 
larger  part  of  the  church.  Of  course,  this  larger  part 
could  not  be  dragged  into  the  union,  and  a  few  years 
later  it  appealed  to  the  civil  court  and  gained  possession 
once  more  of  the  library  and  funds  which  had  been  car- 
ried to  Princeton.  The  Presbyterian  Church  complied 
promptly  with  the  orders  of  the  courts.  But  there  was  no 
way  to  repair  certain  other  damages  which  the  movement 


^^6     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

inflicted  on  the  Associate  Reformed  Church.  It  wiped 
out  its  strength  in  all  the  large  eastern  cities,  and  drew 
a  broad  line  between  its  different  sections,  separating  it 
broadly  into  three  distinct  divisions,  North,  West  and 
South.  These  were  absolutely  independent  of  each  other, 
having  no  connection  save  a  bond  of  mutual  sympathy 
and  brotherly  love. 

The  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South. — 
This  is  the  only  one  of  the  four  original  constituents  of 
the  General  Synod  that  has  preserved  its  identity  to  the 
present  day.  It  has  been  courted  much  by  other  bodies, 
and  is  now  receiving  very  special  attention  from  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church,  but,  so  far,  it  has  per- 
sistently declined  to  enter  into  closer  bonds  with  any. 
It  still  retains  much  of  the  conservatism,  for  which  all  the 
churches  formed  of  the  old  covenanting  elements  of  Scot- 
land have  ever  been  noted.  This  conservatism  is  par- 
ticularly manifest  in  its  exclusive  use  of  the  Psalms  in  its 
service  of  praise,  and  in  its  close  adherence  to  the  doctri- 
nal system  contained  in  the  Westminster  Standards.  It 
has  broadened  a  little  with  respect  to  some  of  its  tradi- 
tional peculiarities.  The  law  against  the  use  of  instru- 
mental music  in  public  worship  has  been  rescinded,  and 
organs  are  found  in  many,  perhaps  most  of  its  churches. 
Former  deliverances  against  secret  oath-bound  societies, 
forbidding  its  members  to  join  fraternities  of  Masons  and 
Odd  Fellows,  have  fallen  into  inoctioiis  desuetude. 
Neither  close  nor  restricted  communion  is  any  longer 
enjoined,  but  "  all  members  of  other  Evangelical  churches 
in  good  and  regular  standing  are  cordially  invited "  to 
join  in  the  service. 

A  classical  high  school,  known  as  Clark  and  Erskine 
Seminary  was    opened   at  Duewest,  South  Carolina,  in 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  337 

1836.  This  grew  into  Erskine  College  in  1843.  During 
its  existence  as  seminary  and  college,  there  has  been  con- 
nected with  it  a  theological  department. 

The  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South  is  divided 
into  nine  presbyteries,  and  these  contain  an  aggregate  of 
about  twelve  thousand  communicants.  The  members  are 
scattered  over  all  the  southern  states,  including  Texas, 
Arkansas  and  Missouri,  but  the  chief  strength  is  in  the 
two  Carolinas. 

The  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  West. — When 
this  synod  drew  away  from  the  General  Synod  in  1820, 
it  was  made  up  of  three  presbyteries  with  congregations 
scattered  from  the  Alleghany  Mountains  to  the  Missis- 
sippi River.  Its  wide  territory  was  principally  home- 
mission  territory,  and  its  great  need  was  preachers. 
To  meet  this  need  it  very  early  established  two  theolog- 
ical seminaries — one  at  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  in  1825,  and  one  at 
Oxford,  O.,  in  1839.  By  taking  strong  ground  against 
slavery,  it  lost  its  hold  in  Kentucky ;  but  its  growth 
toward  the  north  and  west  was  such  that  in  1839,  it  was 
under  the  necessity  of  dividing  into  two  synods,  and  a 
little  later  a  third  was  formed.  These  united  to  form  a 
General  Synod.  In  1855,  these  three  synods  united  with 
the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  New  York,  thus  bring- 
ing into  one  General  Synod  all  the  forces  of  the  church, 
except  the  Associate  Reformed  Synod  of  the  South. 

The  United  Presbyterian  Church. — This  Church  is 
the  result  of  a  union  between  the  Associate  Synod  and 
the  General  Synod  of  the  Associate  Reformed  Church. 
Its  history,  therefore,  has  nearly  all  been  written.  It  falls 
heir,  through  the  two  tributaries  of  which  it  is  formed,  to 
Richard  Cameron  and  Donald  Cargill,  on  the  one  hand  ; 
and  on  the  other  to  Ebenezer  Erskine  and  his  confreres. 


338     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

The  union  took  place  in  the  City  Hall  of  Pittsburg,  Pa., 
May  26,  1859.  The  Associate  Synod  brought  into  the 
United  body  twenty-three  thousand,  and  the  Associate 
Reformed  Synod  thirty-one  thousand  communicants. 
The  basis  of  union  was  the  Westminster  Standards, ////j 
a  "  Judicial  Testimony."  This  latter  comprises  a  series 
of  eighteen  articles,  singling  out  for  emphasis  and  ex- 
planation certain  doctrines  of  the  Confession  of  Faith, 
and  embracing  a  few  distinctive  points  not  contained  in 
the  confession.  The  last  five  articles  set  forth  these 
distinctive  points,  and  are  worth  quoting  in  full  as 
exhibiting  certain  peculiarities  which  attach  to  all  the 
churches  of  Scottish  Dissenting  Origin. 

14.  "  We  declm'e,  That  slave  holding — that  is  the 
holding  of  unoffending  human  beings  in  involuntary 
bondage,  and  considering  and  treating  them  as  property, 
and  subject  to  be  bought  and  sold — is  a  violation  of  the 
law  of  God,  and  contrary  both  to  the  letter  and  the  spirit 
of  Christianity. 

15.  "  We  declare y  That  all  associations,  whether 
formed  for  political  or  benevolent  purposes,  which  im- 
pose on  their  members  an  oath  of  secrecy  or  an  obliga- 
tion to  obey  a  code  of  unknown  laws,  are  inconsistent 
with  the  genius  and  spirit  of  Christianity,  and  church 
members  ought  not  to  have  fellowship  with  such  associa- 
tions. 

16.  "  We  declare,  That  the  church  should  not  extend 
communion,  in  sealing  ordinances,  to  those  who  refuse 
adherence  to  her  profession  or  subjection  to  her  govern- 
ment and  discipline,  or  who  refuse  to  forsake  a  com- 
munion which  is  inconsistent  with  the  profession  that  she 
makes  ;  nor  should  communion  in  any  ordinance  of  wor- 
ship  be   held   under   such    circumstances   as    would   be 


THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA  339 

inconsistent  with  keeping  of  these  ordinances  pure  and 
entire,  or  so  as  to  give  countenance  to  any  corruption  of 
the  doctrine  and  institution  of  Christ, 

17.  "  l^Fe  dt'c/are,  That  pubhc  social  covenanting  is  a 
duty,  the  observance  of  which  is  not  required  at  stated 
times,  but  on  extraordinary  occasions,  as  the  providence 
of  God  and  the  circumstances  of  the  church  may  indi- 
cate. It  is  seasonable  in  times  of  great  danger  to  the 
church,  in  times  of  exposure  to  backsliding,  or  in  times 
of  reformation,  when  the  church  is  returning  to  God 
from  a  state  of  backsliding.  When  the  church  has  en- 
tered into  such  covenant  transactions,  they  continue  to 
bind  posterity  faithfully  to  adhere  to  and  prosecute  the 
grand  object  for  which  such  engagements  have  been  en- 
tered into. 

18.  "  IVe  declare y  That  it  is  the  will  of  God  that  the 
songs  contained  in  the  Book  of  Psalms  be  sung  in  his 
worship,  both  public  and  private,  to  the  end  of  the 
world;  and  in  singing  God's  praise  these  songs  should  be 
employed  to  the  exclusion  of  the  devotional  compositions 
of  uninspired  men." 

Educational  Institutions. — Probably  no  church  has 
been  more  zealous  in  the  cause  of  Christian  education. 
With  comparatively  meager  resources  it  has  built  up  a 
number  of  excellent  colleges  and  seminaries  in  the  mid- 
dle and  western  states.  It  claims  to  have  founded  the 
first  theological  seminary  on  the  continent.  This  was  the 
seminary  established  by  the  Associate  Church  in  1794  at 
Service,  Beaver  County,  Pa.  No  doubt,  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  would  dispute  the  claim  that  this  was  the 
first  theological  seminary  on  the  continent.  That  church 
claims  that  the  theological  seminary,  now  at  New  Bruns- 
wick, N.  J.,  "  was  founded  in  1784  by  the  election  of  the 


340     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Rev.  J.  H.  Livingston,  as  professor  of  theology."  We  shall 
not  attempt  to  adjudicate  between  these  conflicting 
claims.  The  United  Presbyterian  Church  has  two  flour- 
ishing theological  seminaries  at  present,  one  at  Alle- 
gheny, Pa.,  and  the  other  at  Xenia,  O.  It  also  has  a 
number  of  colleges,  including  three  located  in  Tennessee 
and  Virginia  for  educating  negroes. 

The  church  has  grown  from  fifty-four  thousand  in 
1858  to  about  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  at  the 
present,  thus  showing  vigorous  life,  and  energetic  prop- 
agandism. 


CHAPTER  XV 
CANADA 

Failure  of  Huguenot  Colonies — The  first  Presbyterians 
to  set  foot  on  the  shores  of  the  western  world  were  from 
the  Reformed  Church  of  France.  One  company  landed 
in  Plorida  in  1565,  was  captured  by  treachery,  and  mur- 
dered in  cold  blood  by  the  Spaniards,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  Pedro  Menendez.  Others  settled  in  Canada 
along  the  St.  Lawrence  and  in  Nova  Scotia.  The 
Huguenots  in  seeking  a  home  in  New  France  were  es- 
caping from  religious  persecution  ;  and  were  also  actuated 
in  some  measure  by  the  hope  of  commercial  advantage. 
Under  the  reign  of  Henry  IV,  they  were  assured  of  pro- 
tection, and  were  given  the  privilege  of  carrying  on 
trade  with  the  natives.  But  after  his  death,  they  were 
made  to  suffer  from  the  hostility  of  his  successor.  Their 
privileges  of  trade  were  taken  away,  and  they  were  sub- 
jected to  such  restrictions  and  persecutions  as  to  prevent 
further  development. 

Permanent  Settlement  of  English  Speaking  Colo- 
nists.— In  171 3,  Nova  Scotia  was  ceded  to  England.  At 
that  time  it  was  settled  by  Roman  Catholics,  the  deporta- 
tion of  whom  has  formed  the  theme  of  song  and  story. 
England  was  moved  to  this  severe  method  of  treatment 
by  the  persistent  insubordination  of  these  Catholics. 
They  would  neither  leave  the  country  of  their  own 
accord,  nor  would  they  take  the  oath  of  allegiance. 
The  government  bore  with  them  for  some  years,  during 

341 


342     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

which  time,  they  were  constantly  intriguing  with  the 
natives  against  the  constituted  authorities.  Finally  the 
government,  after  the  manner  of  the  old  Assyrian 
conquerors,  forcibly  removed  them  from  their  homes 
and  transported  them  to  the  far  distant  south.  Prot- 
estant settlers  were  invited  to  take  their  place,  and 
quite  a  number  migrated  thither  from  Boston,  Rhode 
Island,  and  other  colonies,  also  from  England,  Scotland 
and  Ireland. 

By  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1763,  the  whole  of  Canada 
was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  ;  and  this  opened  a  wide  and 
inviting  field  to  the  occupancy  of  English-speaking 
people.  They  were  not  slow  to  take  advantage  of  the 
opening.  As  many  as  ten  thousand  arrived  the  first 
year ;  and  soon  the  population  had  increased  to  such 
numbers  as  to  make  the  demand  urgent  for  preachers, 
and  the  ordinances  of  public  worship. 

Beginning  of  Presbyterian  Organization. — Most  of 
the  early  Presbyterian  settlers  were  from  Scotland. 
Naturally  the  churches  of  that  land  accepted  the  obliga- 
tion to  supply  their  religious  wants.  The  first  ministers 
from  Scotland  were  from  the  Burgher  Synod,  one  of  the 
two  bodies  into  which  the  secession  church  of  Erskine 
divided.  Three  ministers  from  the  synod,  Daniel  Cook, 
David  Smith,  and  Hugh  Graham  met  together  in  1786, 
and  with  two  ruling  elders  organized  the  Presbytery  of 
Truro.  The  Rev.  James  McGregor,  a  minister  from  the 
Anti-Burgher  Synod  of  Scotland  labored  for  a  time  as 
an  independent  missionary,  enduring  much  hardship,  and 
exhibiting  much  heroism  of  character.  In  1795,  being 
joined  by  two  other  ministers  from  the  Anti-Burgher 
Synod,  they  together  organized  the  Presbytery  of  Pictou. 
Thus  the  divisions   of  the  mother  church  were  trans- 


CANADA  343 

planted  to  the  new  world ;  and  the  necessary  steps  were 
taken  to  perpetuate  them  indefinitely.  It  looked  as  if 
the  separative  propensity  of  Scotch  Presbyterianism 
were  congenital  and  incurable.  But  after  years  were 
to  show  that  such  was  not  really  the  case.  Unity  of 
doctrine,  of  polity,  and  of  worship  has  furnished  an 
attractive  power  sufficient  to  overcome  long-cherished 
devotion  to  party  shibboleths. 

Formation  of  Synod  of  Nova  Scotia,  1817.— Soon 
after  the  organization  of  the  Anti-Burgher  Presbytery 
of  Pictou  the  Burgher  Presbytery  of  Truro  made  over- 
tures for  fraternal  relations  and  cooperation.  These 
overtures  were  not  at  once  successful;  but  in  1 8 17,  the 
unreasonable  antagonisms  gave  place  to  brotherly  confi- 
dence, and  the  two  presbyteries  came  together.  A  few 
ministers  from  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland  also 
entered  into  the  union.  Thus  was  formed  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  organized  a  synod, 
and  this  divided  into  the  three  presbyteries  of  Truro, 
Pictou  and  Halifax.  The  strength  of  the  church  at  this 
time  was  represented  by  nineteen  ministers  with  a  Pres- 
byterian population  of  forty-two  thousand.  The  terri- 
tory of  the  synod  included  Nova  Scotia,  Cape  Breton, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Prince  Edward  Island. 

The  history  of  the  Church  of  Canada  falls  naturally 
into  two  distinct  parts  owing  to  the  geographical  division 
of  the  country  into  the  Eastern  and  Western  Provinces. 
It  will  perhaps  be  in  the  interest  of  clearness  to  recite  the 
history  of  each  separately.  The  history  of  the  Eastern 
Province  will,  therefore,  be  continued  down  to  the  year 
1875. 

Efforts  to  Provide  for  a  Home-grown  Ministry. — 
The   most    urgent    need    of   the   church  was  a  greater 


344     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

number  of  ministers.  Nineteen  were  a  very  inadequate 
supply  to  look  after  the  population  already  on  the 
ground.  But  immigrants  continued  to  pour  in,  and 
the  need  became  more  and  more  urgent.  Scotland  and 
Ireland  could  not  be  depended  on  for  an  adequate 
supply.  So  the  synod  immediately  set  about  providing 
for  the  training  of  a  ministry  at  home.  King's  College, 
Windsor,  would  have  answered  their  purpose,  had  the 
English  government  been  more  just  and  liberal.  But 
according  to  one  of  the  statutes  of  this  college,  no 
degree  was  to  be  conferred  until  the  candidate  had 
subscribed  the  thirty-nine  articles  of  the  Church  of 
England.  Another  statute  forbids  "  any  member  of  the 
university  from  frequenting  the  Romish  Mass,  or  the 
meeting  houses  of  Presbyterians,  Methodists,  Baptists, 
or  the  conventicles,  or  other  places  of  worship  of  any 
other  dissenters  from  the  Church  of  England,  or  where 
divine  service  shall  not  be  performed  according  to  the 
liturgy  of  the  Church  of  England."  Such  narrow  in- 
tolerance necessitated  an  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
Presbyterians  to  provide  their  own  school.  The  effort 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  Pictou  Academy.  This 
academy  was  inaugurated  under  the  presidency  of  the 
Rev.  Thomas  McCulloch,  and  for  many  years  did  a  most 
useful  work,  training  many  godly  ministers  for  the  church. 
It  was  closed  in  1834,  when  Dr.  McCulloch  was  trans- 
ferred to  Dalhousie  College. 

An  Effort  to  Secure  Religious  Liberty. — The  Synod 
of  Nova  Scotia  invited  the  cooperation  of  other  dissent- 
ing bodies  in  an  effort  to  secure  equal  rights  with  the 
clergy  of  the  Church  of  England.  "  They  petitioned  for 
(a)  the  right  of  marrying  by  license  without  proclama- 
tion of  banns;  (d)  the   right  of  congregations   to  hold 


CANADA  345 

real  estate,  so  far  at  least  as  regards  places  of  worship 
and  glebes ;  (c)  the  right  to  enjoy  a  proportional  share 
of  whatever  money  should  be  granted  by  the  British 
Parliament  for  the  support  of  the  gospel  in  the  Province ; 
(d)  and  that  admissibility  to  be  trustees  in  Pictou  Academy 
be  extended  to  dissenters  of  all  denominations."  Slight 
and  reasonable  as  these  requests  were,  they  were  denied. 
The  British  Parliament  continued  to  grant  thousands  of 
dollars  to  bishops  and  clergymen  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  and  in  many  ways  to  favor  Episcopalians  at  the 
expense  of  dissenters.  Nothing  strikes  the  "  free-born  " 
with  greater  surprise  than  the  patience  with  which  the 
subjects  of  England,  who  chose  to  manage  their  church 
affairs  without  a  bishop,  and  to  worship  without  the 
prayer  book,  bore  the  oftentimes  insolent  oppression 
of  the  English  Establishment. 

The  Glasgow  Colonial  Society. — This  society  was 
formed  in  1825,  and  had  for  its  object  the  promotion  of 
the  religious  and  moral  interests  of  the  Scottish  settlers 
in  British  North  America.  During  the  first  ten  years  of 
its  existence  it  sent  forty  ministers  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land into  Canada.  Many  of  these  chose  the  Eastern 
Provinces  for  their  field  of  labor.  Refusing  to  join  the 
church  which  had  already  been  planted  on  this  soil, 
these  ministers  organized  in  1833  a  synod  in  connection 
with  the  Church  of  Scotland.  Thus  again  the  divisive 
spirit  of  the  home  land  was  transplanted  to  the  colony. 
Two  churches,  holding  the  same  identical  standards,  were 
working  in  the  same  field  as  rivals.  The  Synod  of  Nova 
Scotia  made  overtures  for  union,  but  in  vain.  These 
overtures  were  renewed  from  time  to  time  up  to  the 
year  1841,  at  which  time  the  synod  in  connection  with 
the  Church  of  Scotland  declared  its  willingness  to  absorb 


346     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  other  synod,  or  any  part  thereof.  The  Synod  of 
Canada,  being  both  the  older  and  the  larger  body  was 
not  asking  to  be  absorbed,  and  proposed  to  break  off 
negotiations,  if  there  could  be  found  no  other  basis  of 
union. 

Effect  of  the  Disruption  on  the  Churches  in  Canada. — 
The  Synod  of  Canada  in  connection  with  the  Church  of 
Scotland  very  naturally  took  a  profound  interest  in  the 
discussions  and  troubles  which  led  to  the  disruption  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1843.  When  that  event  came, 
its  sympathies  were  with  the  members  who  went  out  and 
formed  the  Free  Church.  The  prevailing  view  was  that 
the  mother  church  had  sacrificed  important  principles  in 
submitting  to  the  oppressive  acts  of  the  civil  government. 
Hence  the  synod,  with  the  exception  of  four  members, 
renounced  connection  with  the  National  Church  of 
Scotland  and  changed  its  name  to  the  Synod  of  Nova 
Scotia,  adhering  to  the  Westminster  standards. 

In  1833,  a  presbytery  had  been  organized  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  New  Brunswick,  composed  of  ministers  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  In  the  course  of  ten  years,  this 
presbytery  grew  into  a  synod.  When  the  disruption  oc- 
curred, it  adhered  to  the  mother  church. 

There  was  at  this  time  a  little  handful  of  Presbyterians 
in  the  Eastern  Provinces,  representing  the  Reformed 
Church  of  Scotland.  These  had  their  separate  organiza- 
tion. 

Thus  at  the  close  of  the  year  1844,  when  the  smoke  of 
the  battles  over  disruption  had  lifted,  it  was  discovered 
that  in  the  Eastern  Provinces  of  Canada  there  were  five 
distinct  and  rival  Presbyterian  organizations.  These  had 
an  aggregate  of  only  sixty  ministers,  and  represented  a 
Presbyterian    population  of   only  one  hundred  and  ten 


CANADA  347 

thousand.  There  were  five  organizations  instead  of  one 
simply  because  the  divisions  of  the  old  country  had  crossed 
the  ocean,  and  they  grew  and  flourished  despite  the  fact 
that  there  was  not  the  slightest  local  reason  for  perpetuat- 
ing them.  The  ground  of  them  had  no  existence  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  Beginning  of  Unions. — After  the  synod  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Church  of  Scotland  severed  its  connection 
with  that  body,  its  attitude  toward  the  Synod  of  Nova 
Scotia  was  more  friendly.  The  negotiations  which  were 
broken  off  in  1 841,  were  renewed.  Some  grounds  of 
difference  still  existed  which  kept  the  two  synods  apart 
a  few  years  longer.  But  in  i860,  the  attractive  power  of 
spiritual  affinity  prevailed  over  all  obstacles,  and  brought 
them  together  in  a  happy  union.  The  united  body  took 
the  name  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  Lower  Prov- 
inces. 

At  the  time  of  the  disruption,  three  ministers,  out  of 
sympathy  for  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland,  withdrew 
from  the  Synod  of  New  Brunswick.  Others  joined  them 
until  they  grew  into  a  synod  of  eighteen  ministers.  In 
1866,  this  synod  united  with  the  Church  of  the  Lower 
Provinces. 

There  were  still  two  small  synods  in  the  Eastern  Prov- 
inces remaining  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land. These  were  the  Synod  of  New  Brunswick,  and  the 
Synod  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island.  In 
1868,  they  united  and  took  the  name  of  the  Synod  of  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  the  Maritime  Provinces.  Hence 
at  this  period  the  whole  of  Eastern  Canada,  so  far  as 
Presbyterian  interests  were  concerned,  was  divided  be- 
tween these  two  Churches — the  Church  of  the  Lower 
Provinces  and  the   Church  of  the  Maritime   Provinces. 


348     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

The  former  was  free ;  while  the  latter  continued  in  con- 
nection with  the  Church  of  Scotland. 

Beginnings  of  Church  Life  in  the  Western  Prov- 
inces.— By  the  fall  of  Quebec  in  1759,  all  the  western 
territory  passed  into  the  possession  of  Great  Britain.  The 
immigrant  population  amounted  to  seventy  thousand, 
nearly  all  of  whom  were  Roman  Catholics.  The  few 
Protestants  were  noted  only  for  their  immorality. 

The  first  Protestant  minister  was  the  Rev.  George 
Henry,  a  military  chaplain  who  was  present  at  the 
capture  of  Quebec.  He  gathered  a  small  congregation 
of  Presbyterians,  and  preached  to  them  in  the  college  of 
the  Jesuits. 

The  first  Presbyterian  minister  settled  in  Montreal  was 
the  Rev.  John  Bethune.  This  was  in  the  year  1786,  in 
which  year  he  organized  a  congregation  in  that  city.  He 
was  followed  by  the  Rev.  John  Young.  Up  to  the  year 
1792,  they  worshiped  in  a  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
When  pay  was  offered,  the  good  fathers  declined  to  re- 
ceive any  remuneration  for  the  use  of  their  church ;  but 
accepted  thankfully  as  a  gift,  ''  two  hogsheads  of  Spanish 
wine  and  a  box  of  candles."  Under  the  ministry  of  Mr. 
Young,  St.  Gabriel  Street  Church  was  built,  the  first 
Protestant  Church  erected  in  the  Western  Provinces. 

The  old  Province  of  Quebec  was  divided  in  1791  nito 
the  two  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  now 
known  as  Ontario  and  Quebec.  Very  slowly  were  the 
religious  destitutions  of  these  provinces  met.  The  Dutch 
Reformed  and  the  Associate  Reformed  churches  of  the 
United  States  sent  missionaries  into  this  region  who  did 
much  valuable  work  but  formed  no  organizations. 

Organization  and  Union  of  Two  Synods. — As  in  the 
case  of  the  Eastern  Provinces,  the  Burgher  Synod  of  Scot- 


CANADA  349 

land  furnished  the  preachers  for  the  first  presbytery. 
These  were  Robert  Easton,  William  Stuart,  William 
Bell  and  WiUiam  Taylor.  In  the  year  1818  they  organ- 
ized the  Presbytery  of  the  Canadas.  After  a  few  years, 
this  presbytery  was  dissolved,  and  reorganized  into  the 
United  Presbytery  of  Upper  Canada. 

At  this  time  there  were  quite  a  number  of  ministers 
connected  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  who  were  labor- 
ing in  these  parts.  Instead  of  joining  with  the  organiza- 
tion already  formed,  they  met  together  on  the  8th  of  June, 
1 83 1,  and  organized  the  synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland.  On  the  15th 
day  of  the  same  month,  the  United  Presbytery  changed 
its  organization  into  the  United  Synod  of  Upper  Canada. 
These  two  synods  were  identical  in  doctrine  and  practice. 
They  differed  only  in  certain  theoretical  points  that  were 
never  likely  to  have  the  slightest  practical  value.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  years  they  discovered  that  their  useless 
theories,  by  keeping  them  apart,  were  costing  them  too 
much.  In  the  presence  of  certain  serious  difficulties 
which  were  confronting  both  churches,  they  needed  the 
strength  which  comes  from  unity.  On  the  3d  day  of 
July,  1840,  they  became  one,  retaining  the  connection 
which  had  hitherto  existed  between  one  of  them  and  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  "  This  was  a  union  partly  of  love 
and  partly  of  policy.  Scottish  Presbyterianism  \vas 
called  upon  to  maintain  its  rights,  in  the  face  of  an  ag- 
grandizing English  Episcopacy ;  and  for  this  a  solid  front 
was  desirable." 

A  Contention  for  Denominational  Rights. — When  the 
constitution  was  adopted  in  1791,  one  seventh  of  the  un- 
ceded  land  of  the  Western  Provinces  was  set  apart  for 
*'  the  support  of  a  Protestant  clergy."     The  clergy  of  the 


350     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Church  of  England  modestly  claimed  to  be  the  only 
Protestant  clergy,  and  consequently  entitled  to  the  whole 
of  this  reserve,  amounting  to  three  millions  of  acres. 
The  Presbyterians  having  been  reared,  for  the  most  part, 
in  connection  with  the  National  Church  of  Scotland,  held 
to  a  different  doctrine,  and  were  arrogant  enough  to  re- 
sist the  Episcopal  claim.  The  Legislative  Council  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown,  and  the  Legislative  Assembly 
elected  by  the  people  aligned  themselves  on  opposite 
sides.  The  battle  was  joined  and  was  waged  fiercely  for 
many  years.  The  Episcopal  leaders  urged  that  great 
harm  would  come  to  the  imperial  government  if  the 
Presbyterian  preachers  should  be  recognized  as  Prot- 
estant clergy.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Presbyterians 
urged  that  great  harm  would  be  done  to  the  cause  of 
truth  and  justice  if  they  were  not  so  recognized.  The 
Presbyterians  won  the  fight,  but,  strange  to  relate,  the  de- 
feated party  carried  off  most  of  the  spoils  of  victory. 
The  imperial  government  decided  that  the  clergy  of  the 
Church  of  England  should  have  two  thirds  and  the  synod 
in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland,  one  third. 

Founding  of  Queen's  College.— The  same  intolerant 
spirit,  which  was  exhibited  in  the  matter  of  the  Clergy 
Reserve,  refused  to  admit  that  the  Presbyterians  were  en- 
titled to  any  government  aid  in  building  up  an  educa- 
tional institution  for  training  a  ministry.  The  Presby- 
terians applied  to  the  government  to  endow  certain  chairs 
for  their  benefit  in  King's  College,  Toronto.  Their  ap- 
plication was  refused.  This  put  them  on  their  mettle, 
and  going  to  work  with  a  zeal  they  built  a  college  of 
their  own,  and  opened  it  in  1842,  with  Dr.  Liddell  as 
principal,  and  the  Rev.  P.  C.  Campbell  as  professor  of 
classics.     This  was  Queen's  College  at  Kingston. 


CANADA  351 

The  Missionary  Synod  of  Canada. — In  1832  three 
missionaries  arrived  in  Western  Canada,  who  had  been 
sent  thither  by  the  United  Associate  Synod  of  Scotland. 
They  found  two  synods  already  on  the  field,  both  of 
which  had  been  formed  out  of  ministers  from  the  Pres- 
byterian churches  of  Scotland.  These  missionaries 
thought  at  first  that  they  could  cast  in  their  lot  with  one 
of  these  synods,  inasmuch  as  its  members  were  of  the 
same  ecclesiastical  pedigree  with  themselves.  But  on  a 
careful  analysis  of  views,  it  was  discovered  that  the  synod 
was  willing  to  receive  aid  from  the  government.  These 
missionaries  were  from  a  church  which  had  within  the 
past  few  years  become  converted  to  the  doctrine  that  the 
church  should  depend  for  support  exclusively  on  the 
voluntary  contributions  of  its  members.  This  question 
had  been  debated  in  Scodand  until  considerable  heat  was 
generated.  Consequently  the  missionaries  felt  in  con- 
science bound  to  add  another  organization  to  the  list. 
On  Christmas  Day,  1834,  they  formed  the  Missionary 
Presbytery  of  the  Canadas.  By  the  year  1843,  this  pres- 
bytery had  grown  sufficiently  large  to  split  into  three, 
and  to  organize  the  Missionary  Synod  of  Canada.  The 
next  year,  there  was  admitted  to  this  synod  the  Mission- 
ary Presbytery  of  Canada  East,  making  the  total  mem- 
bership of  the  synod  at  that  time  twenty-two. 

Effects  of  the  Disruption  in  the  West.— When  the 
disruption  of  1843  occurred  in  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
the  quarrel  was  taken  up  in  the  Western  Provinces,  with 
the  same  zest  as  in  the  Eastern.  The  majority  of  the 
synod  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scotland  re- 
mained loyal  to  the  mother  church  ;  but  twenty-six  en- 
tered their  protest  and  went  out.  These  organized  the 
Synod  of  the  Free  Church  of  Canada  on  the  lOth  day  of 


352     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

July,  1844.  At  its  first  meeting  this  new  synod  appointed 
a  commission  to  look  after  the  interests  of  education  and 
home  missions.  It  also  authorized  the  publication  of  a 
pastoral  address,  setting  forth  in  strong  terms  its  reasons 
for  repudiating  connection  with  the  National  Church  of 
Scotland. 

Establishment  of  Knox  College,  Toronto. — Before 
the  division  of  the  synod,  Queen's  College  had  been  put 
in  successful  operation.  This  college  with  its  professors 
remained  with  the  old  synod.  Nearly  all  the  students 
cast  in  their  lot  with  the  new  synod.  Here  was  an 
urgent  necessity  for  a  new  educational  institution,  as  the 
two  synods  could  not  cooperate  in  any  form  of  church 
work.  This  urgent  necessity  was  met  at  once  by  open- 
ing a  school  in  Toronto,  with  two  professors,  and  using  a 
room  in  a  private  residence  as  a  place  of  meeting.  In 
the  course  of  a  few  years  this  small  beginning  grew  into 
Knox  College. 

Union  of  Two  Western  Synods,  1861. — When  the 
Free  Church  Synod  was  formed,  that  made  three  separate 
organizations  in  the  Western  Provinces.  These  con- 
tinued to  work  separately  and  with  more  or  less  hurtful 
rivalry  until  1861.  In  that  year  a  happy  union  was 
formed  by  the  Mission  Synod  and  the  Free  Church 
Synod,  the  former  body  bringing  into  the  union  sixty- 
eight  ministers,  and  the  latter  one  hundred  and  fifty-eight. 
This  union  was  made  possible  by  the  refusal  of  the  Free 
Church  Synod  to  accept  of  state  aid.  While  it  did  not 
profess  the  doctrine  of  voluntaryism,  it  was  constrained 
by  circumstances  to  adopt  this  principle  in  practice. 
The  United  Church  took  the  name  of  the  Synod  of  the 
Canada  Presbyterian  Church. 

One  Presbyterian  Church  for  the  Whole  of  Canada. 


CANADA  353 

—From  the  year  1868  up  to  the  year  1875,  there  were 
two  Presbyterian  organizations  in  the  East,  and  two  in 
the  West.  In  each  division  there  was  one  free  synod, 
and  one  synod  in  connection  with  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land. The  year  1875  is  memorable  for  having  witnessed 
the  union  of  these  four  synods.  **  In  the  early  part  of 
Tuesday,  the  15th  of  June,  1875,  the  supreme  courts  of 
the  four  negotiating  churches  met  separately  for  the  last 
time  in  different  churches  in  the  city  of  Montreal.  Each 
adopted  a  resolution  to  repair  to  Victoria  Hall,  and  there 
to  consummate  the  union.  In  this  place,  accordingly  all 
the  delegates  met  at  1 1  a.  m.  One  of  the  clerks  read  the 
Articles  of  Union.  These  were  subscribed  by  the  four 
moderators,  who  gave  to  each  other  the  right  hand  of 
fellowship.  One  of  the  moderators  then  declared  that 
the  four  churches  were  now  united  and  formed  one 
church  to  be  designated  and  known  as  The  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Canada.  On  its  rolls  were  the  names  of  623 
ministers.  The  Rev.  John  Cook,  D.  D.,  minister  of  St. 
Andrew's  Church,  Quebec,  and  Principal  of  Morrin  Col- 
lege was  unanimously  elected  Moderator  of  the  As- 
sembly." 

The  history  of  the  Church  since  the  union  has  demon- 
strated that  the  Lord  was  in  the  movement  which 
brought  all  the  divisions  of  the  sacramental  host  into  one 
organic  whole.  His  smile  has  rested  on  the  labors  of  the 
united  body,  and  no  dissention  or  friction  has  marred  its 
harmony. 

Home  Mission  Fields. — The  Church  carries  on  an  ex- 
tensive home  mission  work  in  both  the  Eastern  and  West- 
ern Provinces,  each  of  these  general  divisions  having  its 
own  board  for  the  supervision  of  the  work.  The  most 
interesting  fields,  however,  are  in  the  West.     Stretching 


354     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

from  Ontario  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  a  vast  territory  two 
thousand  miles  in  length,  through  which  runs  the  Canada 
Pacific  Railroad.  This  country,  rich  in  agricultural  and 
mineral  resources,  is  attracthig  to  itself  a  strong  and  con- 
tinuous tide  of  immigration.  To  meet  the  needs  of  this 
incoming  population  of  most  varied  character,  the  Church 
is  taxing  her  energies  to  the  utmost ;  and  splendid  is  the 
record  which  she  has  made.  By  way  of  illustration  it 
may  be  mentioned  that  in  the  year  of  the  union  there 
were  in  the  two  northwestern  provinces,  Manitoba  and 
British  Columbia,  and  the  intermediate  territories  only 
one  presbytery  with  about  twelve  ordained  missionaries 
and  professors.  Such  was  the  growth  during  the  next 
sixteen  years  that  in  the  same  region  there  was  a  synod 
with  seven  presbyteries,  seventy-one  settled  pastors  and 
four  professors.  The  home-mission  work  in  the  same 
field  was  represented  by  fifty-two  ordained  ministers, 
sixty-eight  students  and  eighteen  catechists,  beside 
twenty-three  teachers  and  matrons  employed  in  Indian 
and  Chinese  missions. 

French  Evangelization. — There  are  in  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  about  1,250,000  French-speaking  Roman 
Catholics,  the  great  majority  of  whom  are  in  the  Province 
of  Quebec.  While  Canada  was  under  control  of  France, 
Romanism  was  firmly  planted,  and  endowed  with  ample 
resources.  When  Canada  passed  under  control  of  Eng- 
land, the  Romish  Church  was  not  disturbed.  '*  By  the 
articles  of  capitulation  in  1759  and  1760,  by  the  treaty  of 
peace  in  1763,  and  by  an  act  of  the  imperial  Parliament 
in  1774,  all  rights  and  powers  previously  enjoyed  by  the 
clergy  were  conserved,  and  the  church  regarded  as  estab- 
lished by  law."  An  eminent  authority  says,  "  It  is  well 
to  recognize  the  fact  that  so  far  as  regards  resources  in 


CANADA  355 

the  form  of  money,  of  swarming  ecclesiastics,  fully- 
equipped  institutions  of  all  kinds,  and  legal  enactments, 
popery  is  more  strongly  established  in  the  Province  of 
Quebec  than  in  France  and  Italy,  and  holds  the  balance 
of  political  power  in  the  whole  Dominion."  This  state 
of  affairs  is  a  standing  challenge  to  the  Protestant 
churches  of  Canada  to  put  forth  the  utmost  efforts  to 
make  gospel  truth  victorious  over  Romish  superstition. 
Very  earnestly  and  persistently  has  the  Presbyterian 
Church  prosecuted  this  work  under  the  direction  of  its 
board  of  French  evangelization.  Its  success  has  been 
gratifying.  Many  thousands  of  converts  have  been  won, 
among  them  a  considerable  number  of  priests ;  numerous 
churches  have  been  built  up ;  and  the  leaven  of  the  gos- 
pel is  every  year  spreading  more  widely.  Under  the 
effective  ministry  of  Father  Chiniquy,  a  converted  priest, 
more  than  2,000  were  won  to  Protestantism  in  the  course 
of  one  year.  Many  indications  show  that  the  burdens  of 
Rome  have  made  the  hearts  of  these  people  weary,  and 
that  they  are  wonderfully  prepared  to  respond  to  the 
gospel  of  liberty  and  light.  There  is  abundant  reason  to 
regard  the  work  of  French  evangelization,  thus  far 
successfully  prosecuted,  as  the  prophecy  of  far  greater 
things  in  the  near  future. 

Foreign  Missions. — When  the  several  churches  came 
together  in  1875,  and  consolidated  their  work  it  was 
found  that  they  had  representatives  in  the  foreign  field, 
in  Formosa  and  Ho-nan,  in  the  West  India  Islands,  in  the 
New  Hebrides,  in  Central  India,  and  in  British  Columbia. 
In  the  work  of  foreign  missions  the  Church  of  Canada 
has  furnished  some  of  the  great  heroes  of  modern  history. 
Never  to  be  forgotten  is  the  name  of  John  Geddie,  the 
pioneer  in  Aneityum,  the  results   of  whose  labors  are 


356     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

summed  up  in  the  inscription  on  the  tablet  behind  the 
pulpit  in  which  he  preached :  "  When  he  landed  in  1848, 
there  were  no  Christians  here,  and  when  he  left  in  1872, 
there  were  no  heathen."  In  like  loving  remembrance 
must  the  name  of  George  N.  Gordon  be  held,  who,  with 
his  heroic  wife,  enriched  with  martyr  blood  the  island  of 
Erromanga.  His  brother,  J.  D.  Gordon,  deserves  equal 
honor,  because  the  only  vengeance  he  sought  for  his 
brother's  death  was  the  privilege  of  taking  up  his  work, 
and  receiving  the  martyr's  crown  on  the  same  soil.  In 
the  same  class  must  be  placed  the  name  of  G.  L.  McKay, 
who  traveled  barefoot  through  Formosa,  sleeping  in  ox- 
stables,  and  damp  huts,  undergoing  hardships  and  facing 
perils  without  number. 

The  Church  which  furnished  so  many  missionaries  of 
heroic  mold  has  been  rewarded  with  rich  harvests  of 
souls  won  for  Christ  from  the  darkness  of  heathenism. 
It  has  also  been  rewarded  with  rich  showers  of  blessing 
on  its  labors  at  home.  The  united  Church,  starting  in 
1875  with  a  communion  roll  of  about  85,000,  has  grown 
till  it  now  numbers  considerably  over  200,000.  It  is 
strong  in  wealth,  well  equipped  with  colleges  and  theo- 
logical seminaries,  strong  in  elements  of  Christian  charac- 
ter, animated  throughout  with  aggressive  zeal,  has  before 
it  an  open  door,  and  may  well  face  the  future  with  a 
buoyant  hope. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

BRITISH  COLONIAL  CHURCHES 

I.     Australia 

The  enterprising  Dutch  discovered  this  island  in  the 
early  years  of  the  seventeenth  century ;  but  it  was  left 
for  Captain  Cook  to  take  formal  possession  of  it  in  1770 
in  the  name  of  Great  Britain.  Then  the  exploration  of 
its  coast  Hnes  began ;  and  by  the  year  1788,  a  spot  was 
found  at  Botany  Bay,  near  the  present  site  of  the  city  of 
Sydney,  for  dumping  a  shipload  of  convicts.  For  a  num- 
ber of  years  the  only  use  that  England  had  for  that  far- 
away land  was  as  a  waste  heap  where  she  might  get  rid 
of  her  lawless  citizens,  who  were  hardly  bad  enough  to 
merit  hanging,  and  yet  too  bad  to  deserve  a  longer  con- 
tinuance in  a  civilized  land.  After  awhile,  however,  suf- 
ficient attractions  were  discovered  in  the  way  of  climate, 
soil  and  mineral  products  to  make  it  worth  while  for  men 
to  go  there  without  waiting  to  be  convicted  of  crime. 

Political  Divisions  and  Government. — Australia  is 
divided  into  six  distinct  provinces,  including  Tasmania, 
an  island  lying  100  miles  to  the  south.  These  provinces 
have  local  self-government,  but  have  recently  been  united 
under  one  federal  administration.  This  political  division 
has  had  its  divisive  effect  on  the  churches.  As  coloniza- 
tion began  much  earher,  and  developed  more  rapidly  in 
some  of  these  provinces  than  others,  of  course  the 
churches  differ  much  in  size  and  vigor.  The  oldest  of 
the  provinces  is  New  South  Wales ;  Western  Australia 

357 


358     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

was  set  apart  in  1829;  Southern  Australia  in  1834;  Vic- 
toria in  1851  ;  and  Queensland  in  1859.  It  will  be  con- 
venient to  sketch  each  provincial  church  separately. 

I.  The  Church  of  New  South  Wales. — This  church 
had  its  beginnings  in  the  labors  of  the  Rev.  John  Dunmore 
~Lang.  He  was  a  remarkable  man  and  did  a  remarkable 
work.  His  activities  were  diversified  in  character,  promot- 
ing in  many  ways  the  healthy  development  of  the  new 
colonies.  He  was  born  at  Greenock,  Scotland,  in  1 799,  and 
died  at  Sydney,  New  South  Wales,  1878.  The  year  in 
which  he  was  licensed,  1823,  he  went  out  to  Australia  on 
invitation  of  the  governor,  Sir  Thomas  Brisbane.  The 
governor  was  himself  a  Presbyterian  elder.  By  the  united 
efforts  of  these  two  eminent  men  a  large  number  of  emi- 
grants were  induced  to  leave  Britain  to  try  their  fortunes 
in  the  land  across  the  southern  seas.  The  number  of 
newcomers  was  sufficient  to  alter  the  complexion  of  the 
population,  and  to  give  it  a  reputable  character.  Dr. 
Lang  did  not  confine  himself  to  the  work  which  belongs 
especially  to  the  minister  of  the  gospel,  but  served  in  the 
colonial  parliament  for  several  successive  terms,  and  was 
also  connected  with  the  newspaper  press.  In  every 
sphere  of  labor  his  efforts  were  directed  with  teUing  effect 
to  the  betterment  of  the  country. 

Church  Organization. — As  soon  as  Dr.  Lang  had 
made  himself  acquainted  with  the  condition  and  needs 
of  the  colony,  he  returned  to  Scotland,  and  brought  out 
a  number  of  teachers.  On  another  visit,  shortly  after- 
wards, he  brought  back  with  him  five  ministers,  in  asso- 
ciation with  whom  he  organized  the  Presbytery  of  New 
South  Wales,  This  was  in  1826.  Ten  years  later  he 
made  another  journey  to  Scotland  and  succeeded  in 
adding  nineteen  more  ministers  to  his  force.     He  claimed. 


BRITISH  COLONIAL  CHURCHES  359 

and,  after  some  legal  contention,  secured  for  the  Presbyte- 
rian ministry  the  same  support  from  the  government  that 
the  government  was  in  the  habit  of  giving  to  the  Episcopal 
clergy.  He  rightly  asserted  that  there  must  be  no  differ- 
ence in  the  eye  of  the  state  between  Scotch  Presbytery 
and  English  Episcopacy.  With  a  strong  band  of  helpers, 
he  set  himself  to  the  task  of  possessing  the  land.  There 
was  reason  to  anticipate  splendid  victories ;  but  unfor- 
tunately almost  immediately  dissension  arose  over  meth- 
ods of  church  expansion.  Dr.  Lang  was  for  modifying 
old  methods  to  suit  new  circumstances.  He  believed  there 
should  be  such  flexibility  of  system  as  would  adapt  ad- 
ministration to  novel  exigencies.  His  co-presbyters  were 
for  a  rigid  adherence  to  the  pohcies  of  the  home  church. 
The  outcome  of  the  dissension  was  a  split.  Dr.  Lang 
went  out,  taking  with  him  a  majority  of  the  newcomers, 
and  formed  the  Synod  of  New  South  Wales.  Only  two 
years  elapsed,  when  the  two  parties  came  together  again, 
and  formed  the  Synod  of  Australia.  Dr.  Lang  did  not 
go  into  the  union.  He  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the 
concurrent  endowment  system  of  the  government,  an  ar- 
rangement by  which  all  denominations  drew  equally  from 
the  government  for  their  financial  support.  He  thought 
the  government  was  too  liberal,  or  rather  too  indiscrimi- 
nating,  giving  alike  for  the  propagation  of  truth  and  false- 
hood. He,  therefore,  withdrew  and  started  an  inde- 
pendent Presbyterian  Church,  based  on  the  principle  of 
voluntary  self-support. 

Troubles  Brought  From  the  Home  Land. — The 
church  of  Australia  was  formed  out  of  material  de- 
rived from  the  Church  of  Scotland.  It  was  inevi- 
table, therefore,  that  its  members  should  feel  pro- 
found interest  in  the  strife   which  in  1843  gave  birth  to 


360     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

the  Free  Church.  The  cause  of  this  strife  had  no  exist- 
ence in  Austraha,  and  there  was  no  good  reason  why  the 
Church  of  Austraha  should  be  involved  in  it.  Fully 
recognizing  this  fact,  the  church  tried  to  play  a  neutral 
part,  merely  expressing  sympathy  with  the  two  parties 
in  Scotland.  But  this  would  not  satisfy  the  belligerents. 
Each  of  the  two  Scotch  churches  demanded  that  the 
brethren  in  Australia  should  declare  in  its  favor.  Re- 
luctantly they  joined  in  the  fray,  and  the  result  was  a 
split  in  the  church.  Of  the  twenty-two  ministers,  sixteen 
remained  faithful  to  the  National  Church  of  Scotland, 
and  six  went  out  to  form  a  church  in  sympathy  with  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland.  What  with  the  church  formed 
by  Dr.  Lang,  there  were  now  three  churches  where  there 
should  have  been  but  one.  This  unhappy  condition 
lasted  until  1865  when  the  fragments  came  together,  and 
once  more  there  was  a  united  Church  in  New  South 
Wales. 

Better  Equipment  and  Larger  Growth. — The  more 
the  resources  of  the  country  became  known,  the  more 
rapid  was  the  growth  of  population.  The  church  found  in- 
creasing difficulty  in  meeting  the  growing  demands  upon 
her  meager  resources.  It  was  absolutely  dependent  on 
the  mother  churches  in  Scotland  for  ministers,  and  the 
coming  of  these  did  not  average  one  a  year.  Conse- 
quently it  marked  an  epoch  in  the  struggling  church 
when  St.  Andrew's  Presbyterian  College  was  established 
in  connection  with  the  University  of  Sydney,  in  1881. 
Through  the  agency  of  this  college,  the  church  was 
able,  in  some  measure,  to  supply  her  own  needs  in  the 
way  of  a  home-trained  ministry.  By  the  liberality  of  a 
few  noble  and  generous-hearted  laymen,  the  church  was 
able   to    enter   upon   a  vigorous  prosecution  of  home- 


BRITISH  COLONIAL  CHURCHES  361 

mission  work  under  the  energetic  and  wise  leadership  of 
the  Rev.  J.  M.  Ross.  Progress  was  rapid,  and  from  that 
time  forward  the  church  held  steadily  on  her  way.  Soon 
its  strength  was  sufficient  to  inaugurate  what  has  proved 
a  successful  mission  work  among  the  aborigines,  Chinese 
immigrants,  and  the  South  Sea  islanders. 

2.  The  Church  of  Victoria. — The  province  of  Victoria 
was  separated  from  New  South  Wales  in  185 1.  This 
same  year  gold  was  discovered  at  Ballarat,  the  news  of 
which  created  a  wide-spread  contagion  of  "  gold-fever." 
At  that  date  the  population  of  the  province  numbered 
77,000.  In  three  years,  it  increased  threefold,  the  in- 
crease coming  from  Great  Britain,  America,  and  else- 
where. It  is  obvious  from  the  motives  which  brought 
the  newcomers  that  they  would  furnish  a  much  more 
needy  than  hopeful  field  for  the  preaching  of  the  gospel. 
They  had  left  the  beneficent  influences  of  the  church, 
and  of  the  older  civilization  to  better  their  fortunes ;  and 
many  of  them  were  only  too  willing  to  be  free  from  the 
restraints  of  the  home  land  that  they  might  give  them- 
selves with  greater  gusto  to  the  life  of  wild  adventure. 

Beginning  of  the  Church  in  Victoria. — As  early  as 
1834,  while  Victoria  was  still  a  part  of  New  South 
Wales,  settlers  drifted  south  to  Port  Phillip,  the  site  of 
the  present  splendid  city  of  Melbourne.  Some  Scotch 
Presbyterians  belonged  to  this  vanguard.  However 
intent  on  earthly  gain,  they  never  could  be  indifferent  to 
spiritual  needs.  The  first  preacher  to  minister  to  them 
was  the  Rev.  James  Clow,  a  retired  East  India  chaplain. 
Before  his  unlooked-for  arrival,  application  had  been 
made  to  the  Presbytery  of  New  South  Wales  for  a 
preacher,  and  in  response  to  this  appeal  the  Rev.  James 
Forbes  came  to  them.     He  proved  an  earnest  and  effect- 


362     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

ive  worker ;  and  at  once  took  charge  of  the  congrega- 
tion, gathered  through  the  voluntary  services  of  the 
retired  chaplain.  By  the  year  1842,  four  others  had 
joined  him  and  the  Presbytery  of  Melbourne  was 
organized  in  connection  with  the  Synod  of  New 
South  Wales. 

Division  and  Reunion. — When  the  Synod  of  New 
South  Wales  was  rent  by  the  strife  imported  from  the 
mother  church  over  the  disruption  of  1843,  the  Rev. 
James  Forbes  was  one  of  the  six  ministers  who  went  out 
from  the  synod.  He  gave  up  the  Church  in  Melbourne, 
and  with  a  few  followers  organized  a  church  in  sympathy 
with  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland.  A  little  later  on, 
the  United  Presbyterians  of  Scotland  sent  out  a  small 
number  of  ministers  and  organized  churches  in  con- 
nection Avith  their  assembly.  Thus  when  the  Colony 
of  Victoria  was  set  off  from  New  South  Wales,  there 
were  three  Presbyterian  denominations  contending  for 
the  same  ground.  It  was  just  at  this  time  that  the  colony 
began  to  grow  so  rapidly,  owing  to  the  discovery  of  gold. 
In  the  presence  of  growing  demands,  the  necessity  for 
economizing  men  and  money  in  the  work  of  the  Lord 
was  increasingly  felt.  For  three  churches  to  be  squander- 
ing their  means  in  building  up  rival  congregations  came 
to  be  recognized  as  a  sin  against  reason  and  righteous- 
ness. Negotiations  for  union  v/ere  set  on  foot,  and  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years  these  were  successful.  After  1870, 
there  was  only  one  church  in  the  province,  to  the  de- 
velopment of  which  all  parties  gave  themselves  with 
hearty  good  will.  To-day  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Victoria  is  conspicuous  for  its  robust  strength  and 
splendid  proportions.  Its  handsome  and  costly  edifices 
adorn  the  large  cities ;  its  home  missions  and  missions  to 


BRITISH  COLONIAL  CHURCHES  363 

the  heathen  are  prosecuted  with  gratifying  prosperity ; 
and  educational  facilities  have  been  provided  for  training 
its  youth,  and  educating  its  ministry.  This  church  has 
the  honor  of  furnishing  to  the  work  of  foreign  missions, 
the  Rev.  John  G.  Paton,  D.  D.,  the  foremost  missionary 
hero  of  the  present  generation.  Ormond  College,  form- 
ing a  part  of  the  University  of  Melbourne,  is  a  worthy 
monument  to  the  munificent  liberality  of  him  whose 
name  it  bears.  Connected  with  this  college  is  a  theolog- 
ical hall,  based  on  a  good  endowment.  The  province 
of  Victoria  leads  all  the  provinces  of  Australia  in  point 
of  population  and  wealth,  and  contains  more  than  half 
of  all  the  Presbyterians  in  that  country. 

3.  Churches  of  the  Other  Colonies. — There  are 
nearly  fifty  thousand  Presbyterian  communicants  in 
Australia.  About  five  sixths  of  these  are  in  the  two 
provinces  of  New  South  Wales  and  Victoria.  Queens- 
land has  five  thousand  of  the  remaining  one  sixth.  It 
will  thus  be  seen  that  the  churches  of  South  Australia, 
West  Australia  and  Tasmania  are  very  feeble  indeed. 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  population  of  those  prov- 
inces is  sparse  and  widely-scattered.  Their  resources 
have  been  but  little  developed ;  nor  is  there  prospect 
of  rapid  development  until  the  other  more  attractive 
provinces  have  been  more  completely  occupied.  But 
each  of  these  provinces  has  in  its  borders  a  well-or- 
ganized Presbyterian  Church,  prepared  to  keep  pace 
with  whatever  growth  there  may  be  in  population. 

The  churches  of  the  six  provinces  have  become  fed- 
erated in  one  General  Assembly.  So  strong  has  the 
sentiment  of  unity,  or  Christian  fraternity,  grown  in 
the  last  few  years  that  a  movement  has  been  inaugu- 
rated to  draw  all  the  evangelical  churches  of  Australia 


364     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

into  a  cooperative  union.  It  is  a  worthy  sentiment,  but 
it  is  hoped  that  even  so  worthy  a  sentiment  may  not  be 
permitted  to  override  the  claims  of  truth.  The  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Australia  has  fought  its  way  through 
grave  difficulties  and  great  discouragements.  It  is  now 
in  a  position  to  make  its  voice  heard  in  behalf  of  sound 
doctrine,  and  to  do  this  is  by  no  means  the  least  of  the 
responsibihties  that  rest  upon  it. 

II.     New  Zealand 

About  1,200  miles  to  the  southeast  of  Australia  lie 
the  two  great  islands,  which  constitute  the  principal  part 
of  the  New  Zealand  group.  The  name  of  this  group 
preserves  the  historic  fact  that  the  discoverers  were  the 
adventurous  seamen  of  Holland.  They  did  nothing 
further  than  to  make  the  discovery.  The  indomitable 
Captain  Cook  set  foot  on  these  shores  in  1769,  and  be- 
came the  first  explorer.  Little  was  done  in  the  way  of 
colonization  until  1840,  when  the  native  chiefs  signed  a 
treaty  acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  Great  Britain. 
From  this  time  forth  exploration  and  settlement  went 
forward  in  earnest.  The  two  islands,  which  alone  need 
to  be  considered  for  the  purpose  of  our  history,  are 
North  Island  and  South  Island.  Each  of  these  is 
something  over  five  hundred  miles  long,  and  the 
two  together  have  an  area  of  about  100,000  square 
miles. 

I.  The  Church  on  North  Island. — In  the  year  1840, 
a  large  number  of  emigrants,  including  a  considerable 
proportion  of  Scots,  landed  at  Port  Nicholson.  With 
these  came  the  Rev.  Mr.  McFarlane  to  look  after  their 
religious  interests.  Wellington,  the  capital  of  the  col- 
onial  government  was  selected  for  his    field  of  labor. 


BRITISH  COLONIAL  CHURCHES  365 

From  this  as  a  center  he  radiated  up  and  down  the 
coast  among  the  smaller  settlements.  The  first  presby- 
tery was  organized  in  1856,  a  majority  of  the  ministers 
composing  it  having  come  from  the  National  Church  of 
Scotland.  By  the  prosecution  of  a  vigorous  home-mis- 
sion work,  under  the  leadership  of  the  Rev.  David  Bruce, 
the  little  groups  of  Presbyterians,  scattered  all  over  the 
island,  were  visited  and  brought  together  in  churches. 
In  the  course  of  a  few  years  the  one  presbytery  grew  to 
eight.  All  the  Scotch  Presbyterian  churches,  and  the 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland  made  contribution  of 
ministers.  At  present^  the  strength  of  the  church  on 
North  Island  is  represented  by  ninety-six  congrega- 
tions containing  about  twelve  thousand  communicants. 

2.  The  Church  on  South  Island. — The  formation  of 
the  church  on  this  island  was  a  Httle  later  than  on  North 
Island ;  but  it  began  its  existence  under  such  favorable 
auspices  as  to  outstrip  its  neighbor.  The  New  Zealand 
company,  a  purely  commercial  corporation,  wanted  a 
good  class  of  immigrants  to  develop  their  various  in- 
terests in  the  district  of  Otago.  They  thought  of  the 
persistent  energy  of  the  thrifty  Scot,  and  offered  special 
inducements  to  members  of  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 
An  agreement  was  reached,  and  in  the  year  1848,  a  com- 
pany of  236  zealous  Free  Churchmen,  with  the  Rev.  T. 
Burns  as  their  pastor,  landed  at  Dunedin.  The  colony 
grew  with  steady  prosperity,  and  in  the  course  of  six 
years,  a  presbytery  was  organized  with  three  ministers 
and  two  elders. 

In  1 861,  gold  was  discovered  at  a  point  sixty  miles 
from  Dunedin.  This  brought  a  rush  of  colonists,  under 
the  impulse  of  the  "  gold  fever."  They,  like  all  other 
such  colonists,  were  more  in  need  of  the  gospel  than 


366     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

anxious  to  have  it.  Tiie  church  was  poorly  supphed 
with  laborers  to  meet  the  new  and  rapidly-growing  de- 
mands ;  but  it  made  the  most  of  its  resources,  putting 
forth  extraordinary  efforts  which  were  greatly  blessed. 
While  the  population  increased  with  prodigious  strides, 
and  wealth  was  accumulated  in  unusual  measure,  the 
church  shared  in  the  prosperity.  It  has  lengthened  its 
cords  and  strengthened  its  stakes  until  now  it  occupies  a 
commanding  position.  In  connection  with  Dunedin 
University,  the  church  has  a  theological  hall,  which 
relieves  it  to  a  considerable  extent  from  dependence 
on  the  home  church  for  its  supply  of  ministers. 

3.  Union  of  the  Two  Churches. — It  would  seem  that 
there  should  have  been  no  trouble  about  uniting  two 
churches,  identical  in  race,  language  and  theological 
standards.  But  the  church  of  the  North  Island  was 
a  child  of  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland ;  and 
the  church  of  South  Island  was  a  child  of  the  Free 
Church.  The  antagonisms  in  the  home  land  were  not 
transported  in  all  their  strength,  but  a  sufficient  amount 
found  its  way  across  the  sea  to  give  rise  to  suspicion. 
Especially  the  Church  of  Otago  was  fearful  that  their 
neighbors  to  the  north  were  a  little  lax  touching  certain 
administrative  methods,  and  forms  of  worship.  By  judi- 
cious diplomacy  a  union  was  brought  about  in  1862,  but 
had  to  be  dissolved  for  the  sake  of  peace  the  next  year. 
A  Union  of  Cooperation  took  its  place,  until  a  very  recent 
■date,  when  the  spirit  of  brotherhood  and  mutual  con- 
fidence brought  them  together  again  in  one  General 
Assembly.  By  this  consolidation  of  forces  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  New  Zealand  is  splendidly  equipped 
for  service,  and  marshals  an  army  28,000  strong. 


BRITISH  COLONIAL  CHURCHES  367 

III.     South  Africa 

There  are  four  colonial  governments  in  South  Africa, 
under  the  supremacy  of  Great  Britain.  Their  white  pop- 
ulation is  made  up  principally  of  Dutch,  now  known  as 
Boers,  a  word  meaning  farmers.  The  history  of  all  these 
colonies  is  closely  interlinked,  and  yet  it  may  be  in  the 
interests  of  clearness  to  look  at  them  separately. 

I.  The  Church  of  Cape  Colony.— Cape  Colony  was 
settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1652.  The  first  comers  were 
characterized  by  the  thrift,  the  intelligence,  and  the  lib- 
eral type  of  piety  common  to  the  freedom-loving  Hol- 
landers of  that  day.  They  were  joined  before  the  end  of 
the  century  by  many  Huguenots,  who  were  seeking 
refuge  from  the  persecutions  that  were  desolating  their 
native  land.  Here  were  the  same  elements  that  formed 
the  settlements  of  the  New  Netherlands  in  America. 
Dr.  David  Livingstone,  the  great  missionary,  called  at- 
tention in  a  remarkable  paper  written  by  him  in  1852,  to 
the  different  histories  made  by  the  two  sets  of  colonists. 
Those  who  came  to  America  joined  the  ma^xh  of 
progress,  and  contributed  their  full  quota  of  helpful 
energy  in  the  development  of  the  United  States.  In 
fact  it  has  been  pretty  clearly  shown  that  through  them 
Holland  contributed  more  than  any  other  European  na- 
tion to  the  upbuilding  of  the  free  institutions  of  the 
American  Republic.  On  the  other  hand,  those  who 
went  to  South  Africa  settled  down  into  a  petrified  con- 
servatism. Their  descendants  suffered  a  decline  of  piety, 
neglected  education,  and  became  narrow  and  sordid. 
They  continued  to  cherish  a  reverence  for  the  Bible,  and 
to  hold  on  with  wonderful  tenacity  to  many  of  the  cus- 
toms of  the  fatherland  ;  but  they  were  entirely  w^anting  in 
those  noble,  intellectual  and  spiritual  aspirations  which 


368     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

pushed  the  country  of  their  ancestors  to  the  front  rank 
among  the  progressive  nations  of  modern  times.  The 
Boers  brought  into  contact  with  savage  tribes,  instead  of 
regarding  this  as  a  call  to  give  them  the  gospel,  regarded 
it  as  an  opportunity  to  take  these  heathen  for  their  own 
inheritance.  The  leader  of  the  first  colonists,  Van  Rie- 
beck,  records  in  his  journal  his  calculation  as  to  "  how 
many  Hottentot  cattle  might  be  stolen  with  the  loss  of 
but  a  few  of  his  own  party."  Not  the  Hottentot  cattle 
only,  but  the  Hottentots  themselves  were  appropriated 
by  the  Dutch  to  their  own  use. 

The  immigration  from  Holland  continued  up  to  the  be- 
ginning of  the  nineteenth  century,  at  which  time  the 
white  population  of  Cape  Colony  amounted  to  27,000 
and  the  slave  population  was  slightly  larger.  All  this 
while  there  were  no  pastors  looking  after  the  spiritual 
wants  of  the  people.  The  only  ministers  among  the 
colonists  were  government  chaplains.  These  were  not 
numerous,  nor  were  they  imbued  with  a  missionary 
spirit. 

Improvement  Under  British  Rule.— In  1806,  Great 
Britain  took  possession  of  Cape  Colony,  but  her  rights 
were  not  recognized  by  Holland  till  181 5.  Soon  after 
this  latter  date,  there  was  a  change  for  the  better  in  the 
religious  situation.  On  application  of  the  government  to 
the  Church  of  Scotland,  eleven  ministers  were  sent  out  in 
1822.  These  found  themselves  somewhat  hampered  by 
restrictions  imposed  by  Dutch  customs,  but  notwithstand- 
ing this  fact  they  did  much  to  bring  order  out  of  con- 
fusion, and  to  build  up  the  waste  places.  Considering 
the  succession  of  wars  and  troubles  of  various  kinds 
through  which  Cape  Colony  has  passed,  the  growth  of  its 
Christian  institutions  has   been  gratifying.     To-day,  the 


BRITISH  COLONIAL  CHURCHES  369 

synod  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  of  Cape  Colony 
represents  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  communicants. 
In  addition  there  is  a  Dutch  Reformed  Mission  Church  in 
South  Africa  containing  more  than  eight  thousand  com- 
municants. Nor  is  this  all;  there  is  a  Presbyterian 
Church  in  South  Africa  with  a  roll  of  eleven  thousand 
members. 

2.  The  Church  of  Natal.— Many  of  the  Dutch  were 
always  restless  and  dissatisfied  under  the  rule  of  the 
English.  When  in  1834,  England  emancipated  all  the 
slaves  throughout  her  entire  dominion,  this  measure  pro- 
voked still  further  discontent  in  the  breasts  of  the  Dutch 
farmers  who  were  very  reluctant  to  give  up  their  Hot- 
tentots. England  paid  the  owners  in  treasury  notes,  but 
many  of  those  who  received  these  notes  did  not  understand 
their  value,  and  suffered  themselves  to  be  cheated  out  of 
them.  Finally  the  discontent  culminated  in  a  remark- 
able migration.  Ten  thousand  Boers,  selling  their  farms 
at  a  sacrifice,  took  their  households  effects  and  their  live 
stock  and  set  out  on  a  journey  northward  in  ox  wagons. 
They  crossed  the  Orange  River  which  forms  the  northern 
boundary  of  Cape  Colony,  and  then  turned  eastward  and 
planted  a  colony  in  Natal,  a  little  bit  of  seacoast,  lying 
several  miles  to  the  northeast  of  Cape  Colony.  Here 
they  came  into  serious  conflict  with  the  Zulus.  A  bloody 
war  was  precipitated,  and  the  Zulus,  having  neither  fire- 
arms nor  horses,  were  slaughtered  like  sheep  whenever 
the  fighting  was  in  open  battle. 

Dr.  Lindley  Among  the  Boers. — It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  first  minister  to  preach  to  these  migrating 
Boers  was  an  American  missionary.  The  American 
Board  sent  out  three  missionaries  who  began  their  work 
among  the  Zulus  in    1836,  the  very  year  in  which  the 


370     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

Boers  came  to  take  possession  of  their  land.  The  con- 
stant raids  and  reprisals  between  the  Boers  and  the  Zulus 
made  it  impossible  for  the  missionaries  to  carry  on  their 
work.  One  of  their  number,  Mr.  Lindley,  afterwards 
Dr.  Lindley,  was  invited  by  the  Dutch  to  labor  among 
them.  The  Board,  on  hearing  all  the  circumstances  of 
the  case,  thought  it  wise  in  him  to  accept  the  invitation. 
The  Boers  built  him  a  house  and  nearly  supported  him. 
He  preached  to  them  on  the  Sabbath,  and  taught  a 
numerous  school  during  the  week.  For  seven  or  eight 
years  he  continued  his  labors  among  them  with  marked 
success.  He  made  yearly  journeys  in  an  ox  wagon  to 
the  Orange  and  Transvaal  Territories.  Appointments 
were  sent  ahead,  and  large  numbers  would  assemble  in 
their  wagons,  and  days  would  be  spent  in  preaching, 
catechising,  admitting  members  to  the  church,  and  in  ad- 
ministering the  sacraments.  Among  the  converts  under 
Dr.  Lindley's  ministry  was  Paul  Kruger,  known  in  recent 
years  as  the  famous  president  of  the  Transvaal  Republic. 
The  memory  of  this  North  Carolina  missionary  is  still 
precious  with  the  Boers,  and  only  a  few  years  ago  they 
named  a  village  Lindley  in  his  honor.  The  church  in 
Natal  has  never  grown  to  large  proportions,  its  present 
membership  numbering  about  two  thousand. 

3.  Churches  of  the  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Trans- 
vaal.— These  churches  have  substantially  the  same  his- 
tory. In  1843,  the  British  government  took  Natal  under 
its  protection.  Whereupon  most  of  the  Boers,  who  had 
gone  there  to  get  rid  of  English  domination,  moved 
westward,  and  founded  the  Orange  Free  State.  But  this 
also  was  taken  under  British  control  in  1848,  and  then 
the  more  incorrigible  of  the  Boers  "  trecked  "  across  the 
River   Vaal    and    established    the    Transvaal    Republic. 


BRITISH  COLONIAL  CHURCHES  371 

These  were  the  Boers  who  in  pressing  their  conquests 
over  the  native  tribes  came  into  colUsion  with  Living- 
stone. They  treated  the  Bakwains,  among  whom  Liv- 
ingstone was  laboring  and  whose  chief  he  was  instru- 
mental in  converting,  with  the  greatest  injustice  and 
cruelty,  destroying  men  and  women,  and  reducing  their 
children  to  slavery.  Dr.  Livingstone  accuses  them  of 
striving  by  this  means  to  replace  the  Hottentots  whom 
the  English  had  emancipated.  The  Boers  did  not  stop 
with  making  war  on  those  for  whom  Livingstone  labored ; 
they  attacked  his  house  at  Kolobeng,  and  destroyed  it 
along  with  all  his  property.  Obviously  the  Boers  were 
no  friends  of  missions.  They  thought  it  both  more  easy 
and  more  profitable  to  make  slaves  than  to  make  Chris- 
tians of  the  natives. 

Labors  of  the  Rev.  Andrew  Murray. — It  is  to  be  said, 
however,  that  at  the  time  when  the  Boers  of  the  Trans- 
vaal were  exciting  the  just  indignation  of  the  great- 
hearted Livingstone,  they  had  had  as  yet  no  minister 
among  them.  In  1849,  the  Rev.  Andrew  Murray  was 
settled  at  Bloemfontein  in  the  Orange  Free  State.  He 
had  the  whole  of  the  two  territories  on  either  side  of  the 
Vaal  River  as  his  parish.  His  work  consisted  chiefly  of 
extensive  itineraries,  during  which  the  people  would 
gather  at  different  points  in  camp  meetings ;  and  several 
days  would  be  spent  in  evangelistic  services  and  in  church 
organization. 

Liberalism  Introduced  from  Holland. — In  1853,  the 
Transvaal  received  its  first  settled  pastor  in  the  person  of 
Mr.  Van  der  Hofif,  who  was  sent  out  by  Holland.  Un- 
fortunately he  belonged  to  the  rationalistic  school  which 
had  grown  up  in  Holland.  He  was  joined  later  by  three 
other  ministers  from  the  same  school.     These  put  their 


372     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

impress  on  the  church  of  the  Transvaal,  and  led  most  of 
its  congregations  to  sever  their  connection  with  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church  in  Cape  Colony.  In  1857, 
through  the  labors  of  Mr.  Pastnia,  who  was  sent  by  the 
Christian  Reformed  Church  of  Holland,  a  dissenting 
church  was  formed  in  the  Transvaal.  Into  this  church 
have  been  gathered  all  those  in  all  the  four  colonies  who 
stand  firmly  by  the  old  orthodoxy  as  it  found  expression 
in  the  Synod  of  Dort. 

Present  Status. — There  are  seven  distinct  churches  in 
the  four  South  African  colonies.  All,  save  one  of  these, 
are  Dutch  in  their  constituency,  and  are  closely  related 
in  their  traditions,  customs,  forms  of  worship  and 
doctrines  to  the  mother  churches  in  Holland.  The 
aggregate  membership  of  these  seven  churches  is  slightly 
over  two  hundred  thousand. 


XVII 
MISSIONARY  TERRITORY 

CHURCHES   ON   MISSION    GROUND 

In  the  great  awakening  of  the  spirit  of  world-evan- 
gelization, which  has  caused  the  last  hundred  years  to 
be  called  the  "  Missionary  Century,"  the  Presbyterian 
churches  enjoyed  their  full  share.  Not  that  they  were 
first  to  feel  the  breath  of  this  revival,  nor  that  they 
measure  up  to  their  full  standard  of  duty,  but  relatively 
they  occupy  an  honorable  place  among  the  evan- 
gelical churches  of  Christendom.  At  present  their  con- 
tributions will  perhaps  average  more  per  member  than 
those  of  any  other  church — the  noble  little  Moravian 
Church  always  excepted.  They  have  planted  the  blue 
banner  in  all  the  larger  nations  of  heathenism,  and  have 
made  many  different  people  to  "  hear  the  wonderful  works 
of  God  in  their  own  language,  wherein  they  were  born." 

Admiral  Coligny,  who  perished  in  the  massacre  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  the  greatest  of  the  Huguenots,  has  been 
credited  with  the  first  efforts  to  give  the  gospel,  as  taught 
by  Protestants,  to  the  heathen.  Calvin  has  also  been 
honored  for  having  given  his  warm  approval  and  great 
influence  to  these  efforts ;  but  the  ill-fated  expedition 
which  Cohgny  sent  to  Brazil  in  1556  was  rather  an  effort 
to  provide  a  refuge  for  the  persecuted  Christians  of 
France  than  to  convert  the  heathen,  although  it  did  result 
in  the  preaching  of  the  gospel  for  a  short  while  to  the 
aborigines.     We  must  come  down  the  course  of  history 

373 


374     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

many  years  to  find  the  beginning  of  Protestant  missions ; 
and  not  till  the  nineteenth  century  was  considerably  ad- 
vanced did  the  Presbyterians  commit  themselves  with  any 
degree  of  vigor,  or  distinctness  of  purpose  to  this  work. 
It  does  not  fall  in  with  our  design  to  trace  the  progress 
of  their  missionary  enterprises,  nor  to  give  all  the  results  ; 
but  it  seems  desirable  to  notice  briefly  some  of  the  more 
conspicuous  Presbyterian  churches  which  have  grown  up 
on  heathen  soil,  and  especially  those  which  have  already 
taken  their  place,  and  also  those  which  are  preparing  to 
take  their  place,  as  independent  entities  in  the  great 
Presbyterian  family.  We  may  as  well  begin  nearest 
home. 

I.  The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Mexico.— The  Pres- 
byterians North  and  South  began  work  almost  simul- 
taneously in  Mexico,  and  this  no  longer  ago  than  1872. 
The  population,  amounting  to  eleven  and  a  half  millions, 
is  composed  of  Spaniards,  Indians  and  a  mixture  of  the 
two.  This  population  has  been  steeped  in  the  errors  of 
Romanism  for  more  than  three  centuries.  But  a  ready 
entrance  was  found  for  the  truth,  and  despite  the  per- 
sistent and  sometimes  violent  opposition  of  Romish 
priests,  a  Presbyterian  Church  soon  sprang  up  in  connec- 
tion with  each  of  the  above  mentioned  bodies.  These 
grew  into  four  presbyteries,  and  then  it  occurred  to  them 
that  the  proper  and  Christian  thing  was  to  get  together 
in  one  organization.  The  mother  churches  gave  their 
cordial  approval.  Whereupon  the  four  presbyteries, 
three  of  them  in  connection  with  the  Presbyterian 
Church  North,  and  one  of  them  in  connection  with  the 
Presbyterian  Church  South,  met  together  in  the  City  of 
Mexico  on  the  8th  day  of  July,  1 90 1,  and  Tormed  the 
"  General  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Mexico." 


MISSIONARY  TERRITORY  375 

This  synod   consists  of  forty-four  ministers,  and  repre- 
sents five  thousand  communicants. 

2.  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Brazil. — 
Here  as  in  Mexico,  the  two  Presbyterian  churches  of  the 
United  States,  have  wrought  together  to  build  up  a 
united  Presbyterian  Church.  Before  the  separation  of 
the  Church  into  Northern  and  Southern,  it  began  work 
in  Brazil,  entering  the  capital  in  1859.  After  the 
division,  the  Southern  Presbyterian  Church  sent  mis- 
sionaries to  Brazil  in  1869.  The  work  here  was  very 
similar  to  that  in  Mexico — it  was  among  a  degenerate 
Latin  race,  thoroughly  saturated  with  Romanism  in  its 
worst  form.  The  late  Pope  Leo  left  a  picture  of  it 
which  needs  no  touching  up  by  a  prejudiced  Protestant 
hand :  **  In  every  diocese  ecclesiastics  break  all  bounds 
and  deliver  themselves  up  to  manifold  forms  of  sensuahty, 
and  no  voice  is  lifted  to  imperiously  summon  pastors  to 
their  duty.  It  is  sad  to  reflect  that  prelates,  priests, 
and  other  clergy  are  never  found  to  be  doing  service 
among  the  poor ;  they  are  never  in  lazar  house,  or 
hospital;  never  in  orphan  asylum  or  hospice;  in  the 
dwellings  of  the  afflicted  or  distressed,  or  engaged  in 
works  of  beneficence.  They  as  a  rule  are  ever  absent 
where  human  misery  exists,  unless  paid  as  chaplains, 
or  a  fee  is  given.  On  the  other  hand,  the  clergy  are 
always  to  be  found  in  the  houses  of  the  rich  or  wherever 
gluttony  may  be  indulged  in,  and  wherever  the  choicest 
wines  may  be  obtained."  Such  clergy  have  shown  their 
attachment  to  a  church  which  indulges  them  in  luxury  and 
license,  by  stirring  up  mobs  to  prevent  missionaries  from 
preaching  a  gospel  that  demands  pure  living.  But  God 
has  been  with  the  missionaries  and  has  signally  blessed 
their  efforts.     In    1888,  acting  in   obedience  to  a  desire 


376     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

common  to  the  native  converts  and  to  the  missionaries, 
the  churches  which  the  two  Presbyterian  denominations 
had  built  up,  came  together  in  organic  unity  and  formed 
the  Synod  of  Brazil.  There  were  at  that  time  four 
presbyteries  and  about  four  thousand  communicants. 
There  are  now  seven  presbyteries,  and  the  communicant 
roll  has  more  than  doubled. 

3.  The  Union  Church  of  Christ  in  Japan.— Nothing 
has  been  more  marked  in  the  history  of  Japan  than  its 
intense  nationahsm.  It  has  shown  a  marvelous  willing- 
ness to  receive  western  ideas,  including  Christian  ideas, 
but  it  is  not  willing  to  submit  to  any  kind  of  foreign 
domination.  When  it  absorbs  and  assimilates  new  ideas, 
it  organizes  them  into  visible  forms,  and  gives  practical 
effect  to  them  after  a  manner  altogether  its  own.  After 
an  unhappy  experience  with  Jesuit  missionaries  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  Japan  closed  her  ports  against  foreign- 
ers, and  prohibited  the  preaching  of  the  "  vile  Jesus 
doctrine  "  on  pain  of  death.  The  ports  were  opened 
in  1854,  but  the  prohibition  against  Christianity  was  not 
removed  till  1872.  Since  that  time  Japan  has  been 
furnished  with  a  different  type  of  Christianity  from  that 
furnished  by  the  Jesuits.  With  that  acuteness  and  quick- 
ness of  apprehension,  characteristic  of  the  Japanese, 
multitudes  of  them  have  discovered  in  the  pure  gospel 
of  Christ  the  religion  which  Japan  needs,  and  have  em- 
braced it  with  enthusiasm. 

The  first  Presbyterian  missionaries  to  labor  in  Japan 
were  from  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  North,  and  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland.  When  these  had  succeeded,  under  the  bless- 
ing of  God,  in  building  up  a  number  of  native  churches, 
these  Japanese  Christians,  true  to  their  national  instincts, 


MISSIONARY  TERRITORY  377 

insisted  on  managing  their  own  affairs.  Consequently 
they  united  in  one  body  taking  the  name  of  the  Union 
Church  of  Christ  in  Japan.  This  was  in  1877,  and  all 
the  Presbyterian  churches  carrying  on  mission  work  in 
Japan  since  that  date,  including  in  addition  to  those 
above  named,  the  German  Reformed,  the  Southern  Pres- 
byterian and  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian,  have  wrought 
in  cooperation  with  this  native  church.  It  is  Presby- 
terian in  form,  and  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  but  has  not 
copied  slavishly  any  type  either  of  polity  or  doctrine 
furnished  by  the  Western  Churches.  It  is  distributed 
into  six  presbyteries,  and  its  strength  is  represented  by 
eighty  preachers,  and  eleven  thousand  communicants. 

4.  The  Synod  of  South  India. — The  Church  of  Scot- 
land sent  Duff  to  India  in  1829.  He  made  Calcutta  the 
center  of  his  great  work,  which  in  so  far  as  it  was 
confined  to  India,  was  largely  an  educational  work.  A 
little  later,  the  same  church  sent  other  workers  who  chose 
as  their  field,  the  Presidency  of  Madras,  in  Southeast 
India.  When  the  disruption  came  in  1843,  all  the  mis- 
sionaries of  the  Church  of  Scotland  cast  in  their  lot  with 
the  Free  Church.  They  gave  up  their  property,  and 
started  on  a  new  foundation.  The  Church  of  Scotland 
sent  other,  of  her  sons  to  man  the  stations  thus  deserted. 
So  it  came  to  pass  that  from  1843  both  these  Scotch 
churches  have  been  working  side  by  side  in  Madras. 
Adjoining  them,  at  Arcot,  since  1858,  the  Dutch  Re- 
formed Church  of  America  has  been  working.  Repre- 
sentatives from  these  three  missions  met  in  the  city  of 
Madras  in  February,  1900,  and  took  steps  to  form  a  Union 
Church.  Having  drafted  a  plan  of  union,  they  sub- 
mitted it  to  the  three  home  churches.  Two  of  these, 
the  Dutch  Reformed,  and  the  Free  Church,  approved  it. 


378     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

The  Church  of  Scotland  withheld  her  assent.  The  result 
was  that  the  churches  of  the  Arcot,  and  the  United  Free 
Church  Missions,  thirty-three  in  number,  united  to  form 
the  two  presbyteries  of  Madras  and  Arcot,  and  these 
presbyteries  formed  the  South  Indian  United  Church. 
Its  constitution  is  made  up  of  symbols  in  harmony  with 
the  doctrines  and  polity  of  the  mother  churches. 

5.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  India. — For  thirty 
years  there  has  been  a  sentiment  among  all  the  Presby- 
terian missionaries  of  India  favoring  the  union  of  all 
their  churches.  These  missionaries  formed  the  "  Presby- 
terian Alliance  of  India  "  for  the  purpose  of  bringing 
about  this  desired  union.  But  nothing  practical  was 
done  until  a  meeting  of  the  Alliance  at  Allahabad  in 
1 90 1.  Then  it  was  resolved  that  organic  union  was  not 
only  desirable,  but  practicable,  and  a  committee  was  ap- 
pointed to  draw  up  a  synopsis  of  doctrine,  and  to  formu- 
late a  basis  of  union.  The  work  of  this  committee  is 
now  under  consideration  by  the  churches  interested.  At 
least  twelve  Presbyterian  bodies  are  concerned;  the  mis- 
sionaries in  India  being  connected  with  the  Presbyterian 
churches  of  Scotland,  Ireland,  England,  Wales,  Canada, 
and  the  United  States.  The  aggregate  membership  of 
these  churches  in  India  is  something  over  25,000.  It  is 
proposed  to  unite  these  in  twenty-five  presbyteries,  and 
seven  synods. 

6.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  China. — At  a  con- 
ference of  Presbyterian  missionaries  held  in  Shanghai, 
October  2,  1901,  the  following  action  was  taken  : — 

"  I.  This  conference  earnestly  desires  the  unity  of  the 
Christian  Church  in  China  and  cordially  welcomes  all  op- 
portunities of  cooperation  with  all  sections  of  the  Church  ; 
the  conference  resolves ^  therefore,  to  take  steps  for  uniting 


MISSIONARY  TERRITORY  379 

more  closely  the  Presbyterian  churches,  hoping  thereby 
to  facilitate  the  ultimate  attainment  of  wider  union. 

"  II.  The  conference,  therefore,  recommends  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  committee  to  prepare  a  plan  of  union, 
organic  or  federal  as  may  be  found  practicable,  and  sub- 
mit the  same  to  the  church  courts  concerned."  The 
movement  thus  inaugurated  has  not  yet  reached  its  con- 
summation, but  its  progress  gives  promise  of  ultimate 
success.  On  the  nth  of  November,  1903,  the  commit- 
tee, appointed  according  to  the  above  recommendation, 
and  representing  seven  churches  concerned,  met  at  Shang- 
hai, and  "  Resolved,  i .  That  we,  and  the  several  churches 
to  which  we  belong,  agree  in  holding  the  word  of  God, 
as  contained  in  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, to  be  the  supreme  rule  of  faith  and  life. 

"  2.  That  the  aforesaid  churches  have,  as  circum- 
stances required,  drawn  up  and  adopted  several  subordi- 
nate standards  of  doctrine,  as  confessions  of  Faith,  Cat- 
echisms, and  other  documents,  to  exhibit  the  sense  in 
which  they  understand  the  Scriptures. 

(We  also  find  that  the  independent  Presbyterian  churches 
of  Manchuria  and  Amoy  have  adopted  shorter  creeds  of 
their  own  in  harmony  with  the  foregoing  standards.) 

"  3.  That  in  view  of  the  manifest  consensus  of  these 
documents  in  the  great  fundamental  matters  of  faith, 
obedience,  worship  and  polity,  we  rejoice  to  believe  that 
we  can  heartily,  and  with  great  advantage  unite  together 
in  seeking  to  advance  the  glory  of  God  in  the  salvation 
of  sinners,  and  in  the  planting  and  upbuilding  of  his 
church." 

This  committee  drafted  a  simple  plan  of  union,  which 
it  transmitted  to  the  various  Presbyterian  missions  in 
China,  to  be  by  them  considered  and  transmitted  to  the 


38o     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

various  Chinese  Church  courts  concerned.  There  are  at 
present  two  synods  in  China,  including  nine  presbyteries, 
in  connection  with  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United 
States  of  America.  At  least  eight  other  Presbyterian 
churches  are  carrying  on  work  there.  The  total  native 
membership  gathered  by  all  these  churches  is  upwards  of 
30,000.  While  there  are  recognized  difficulties  in  bring- 
ing all  these  into  organic  unity,  yet  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  this  consummation,  so  devoutly  to  be 
wished,  will  be  reached  within  the  next  three  years. 

The  Publishing  House  at  Shanghai. — One  of  the  most 
important  agencies  for  the  spread  of  gracious  influences 
in  China  is  the  Presbyterian  publishing  establishment  at 
Shanghai,  with  its  list  of  over  seven  hundred  works  in 
the  native  language.  From  its  presses  there  is  going 
forth  an  ever-increasing  volume  of  literature,  in  the  way 
of  school  books,  medical  books,  hymn  books,  religious 
tracts,  and  above  all  every  variety  of  edition  of  the  Bible, 
to  enlighten,  uplift  and  save  those  people. 

7.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  Korea. — Until  a  very 
recent  date,  Korea  was  known  as  one  of  the  hermit  na- 
tions. It  shut  itself  up  within  itself  and  resolved  that 
in  the  exchange  of  ideas  it  would  neither  borrow  nor 
lend.  More  than  a  hundred  years  ago  the  Roman  Cath- 
olics found  an  entrance,  and  managed  at  the  cost  of  severe 
persecutions  from  time  to  time,  to  win  a  considerable  fol- 
lowing;  but  in  1864,  the  Korean  government  by  a  de- 
termined and  persistent  effort  wiped  out  in  blood  every 
trace  of  the  Romish  Church.  In  1873,  the  Rev.  John 
Ross,  sent  as  a  missionary  to  Manchuria  by  the  United 
Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland,  induced  a  Korean  to 
visit  him  at  Mukden  and  teach  him  the  language.  He 
translated  parts  of  the  Bible  into  the  Korean  language, 


MISSIONARY  TERRITORY  381 

and  by  the  employment  of  a  few  adventurous  Korean 
colporteurs,  managed  to  sow  the  good  seed  of  the  kingdom 
inside  of  the  hermit  nation.  By  and  by,  providence  set 
the  door  slightly  ajar,  and  missionaries  from  the  North- 
ern Presbyterian  Church  entered  in  1884.  A  little  later, 
these  were  followed  by  representatives  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  of  Canada.  Later  still,  the  Southern  Presbyterian 
Church  sent  missionaries  to  join  in  the  work.  It  was 
discovered  by  the  first  missionaries  of  the  Northern 
Church  that  the  seed  sown  by  the  Rev.  John  Ross  had 
not  perished.  It  only  needed  a  little  cultivation  to  begin 
to  yield  a  most  gratifying  harvest.  During  the  few  years 
from  1884  to  the  present,  a  most  hopeful  beginning  has 
been  made.  Connected  with  the  three  churches  above 
named  there  are  more  than  6,000  communicants.  Steps 
have  been  taken  to  organize  them  all  into  one  independ- 
ent Korean  Presbyterian  Church.  It  is  believed  that  the 
native  Christians  are  hardly  sufficiently  instructed  in  the 
faith  to  make  it  advisable  just  now  to  throw  on  them  the 
responsibility  of  self-government ;  but  the  plan  is  already 
mapped  out,  and  the  purpose  declared  to  do  this  as  soon 
as  the  Church  gains  a  little  more  strength  and  experience. 
8,  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  Persia.— The  founda- 
tions of  this  church  were  laid  by  the  American  Board, 
but  was  transferred  to  the  Northern  Presbyterian  Church 
in  1870.  The  center  of  its  activities  is  at  Urumiah,  where 
a  mission  college  is  doing  a  remarkable  educational  work. 
This  college  has  grown  out  of  a  school  started  with  seven 
little  boys  in  a  cellar  in  1836  by  Justin  Perkins.  It  now 
educates  the  ministry  of  the  Persian  Presbyterian  Church  ; 
and  is  patronized  by  the  Mohammedans  because  of  its 
recognized  merits,  and  the  high  character  of  those  who 
teach  in  it.     While  the  Persian  Church  is  still  connected 


82     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 


with  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States  of 
America,  and  is  largely  dependent  on  it  for  means  to 
prosecute  evangelistic  work,  yet  it  is  permitted  separate 
representation  in  the  Pan- Presbyterian  Council.  It  has  a 
membership  of  nearly  three  thousand. 

g.  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  Syria. — The  origin 
of  this  church  is  the  same  as  that  in  Persia ;  and  it  still 
sustains  a  loose  connection  with  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America.  But  recently  its 
churches  have  been  organized  into  three  presbyteries, 
namely,  the  Presbytery  of  Sidon,  the  Presbytery  of 
Beirut  and  Lebanon,  and  the  Presbytery  of  Tripoli. 
Thus  the  native  pastors  and  elders  are  being  trained  to 
self-government,  and  the  process  of  evolution  will  no 
doubt  continue  until  the  church  can  stand  alone. 

10.  The  Synod  of  Jamaica. — This  was  the  first  Pres- 
byterian Church  on  mission  ground  to  which  was  granted 
the  privilege  of  self-government.  It  owes  its  origin  to 
mission  work  begun  by  the  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland  in  1824;  and  it  still  derives  a  large  portion 
of  its  ministerial  supply  and  financial  support  from  that 
source.  Its  12,000  members  are  distributed  into  six  pres- 
byteries, and  are  served  by  twenty-eight  pastors.  This 
church  has  a  theological  hall  and  educates  in  part  its  own 
ministry.  For  many  years  it  has  carried  on  mission  work 
in  the  old  Calabar  Mission  in  West  Africa. 

11.  Other  Mission  Churches. — We  have  been  notic- 
ing only  those  churches  which  have  more  or  less  local 
autonomy.  Some  of  these  have  already  taken  their  place 
as  independent  members  of  the  Presbyterian  family. 
Others  are  far  on  the  way  to  this  destination.  Besides 
these,  there  are  thousands  of  communicants,  gathered  in 
native  churches,  that  are  still  under  the  nurturing  care  of 


MISSIONARY  TERRITORY  383 

the  churches  to  whose  beneficent  activities  they  owe  their 
birth.  A  large  number  of  such  churches  are  in  the  East 
Indies,  subject  to  the  control  of  the  Reformed  Church  of 
Holland.  Another  large  number  are  in  the  West  Indies 
where  the  United  Church  of  Scotland,  and  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Canada  have  been  especially  active.  In 
Egypt,  the  United  Presbyterian  Church  of  America  has 
done  a  great  work,  by  which  six  thousand  communicants 
have  been  gathered  into  mission  stations  along  the  River 
Nile  for  a  distance  of  five  hundred  miles.  In  the  New 
Hebrides,  there  is  a  missionary  synod  including  more 
than  three  thousand  communicants,  under  the  oversight 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Australia.  In  Central  and 
South  Africa,  successful  mission  work  by  various  Presby- 
terian churches  and  societies  have  brought  into  the  fold 
of  Christ  several  thousand  communicants.  The  total  re- 
sults of  the  foreign  mission  work  of  all  the  Presbyterian 
churches  are  represented  by  a  membership  of  native 
Christians  amounting  to  219,475. 

Aggregate  Presbyterianism 
The  Presbyterianism  of  the  world  is  approximately 
represented  in  the  "  Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches 
Holding  the  Presbyterian  System."  This  Alliance  was 
formed  by  representatives  of  twenty-two  different  Presby- 
terian and  Reformed  churches.  They  met  in  the  Eng- 
lish Presbyterian  College,  Guilford  Street,  London,  July 
21,  1875,  and  spent  two  days  in  deliberation  and 
prayer.  The  purpose  of  the  organization  is  declared  in 
the  preamble  to  the  constitution  which  was  adopted  at 
that  time.  "  Whereas,  Churches  holding  the  Reformed 
faith,  and  organized  on  Presbyterian  principles,  are 
found,  though    under   a  variety  of  names,  in  different 


384     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

parts  of  the  world ;  Whereas,  many  of  these  were  long 
wont  to  maintain  closer  relations,  but  are  at  present 
united  by  no  visible  bond,  whether  of  fellowship  or  of 
work ;  and  Whereas,  in  the  providence  of  God,  the  time 
seems  to  have  come  when  they  may  all  more  fully  mani- 
fest their  essential  oneness,  have  closer  communion  with 
each  other,  and  promote  great  causes  by  joint  action;  It 
is  agreed  to  form  a  Presbyterian  Alliance  to  meet  in 
General  Council  from  time  to  time,  in  order  to  confer 
upon  matters  of  common  interest,  and  to  further  the  ends 
for  which  the  Church  has  been  constituted  by  her  divine 
Lord  and  King.  In  forming  this  Alliance,  the  Presby- 
terian churches  do  not  mean  to  change  their  fraternal 
relations  with  other  churches,  but  will  be  ready  as  here- 
tofore to  join  with  them  in  Christian  fellowship,  and  in 
advancing  the  cause  of  the  Redeemer,  on  the  general 
principle  taught  in  the  Reformed  confessions  that  the 
Church  of  God  on  earth,  though  composed  of  many 
members,  is  one  body  in  the  communion  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  of  which  body  Christ  is  the  Supreme  Head,  and 
the  Scriptures  alone  are  the  infallible  law."  The  Alliance 
held  its  first  council,  July  3-10,  1877,  in  Edinburgh,  Scot- 
land, meeting  for  sermon  in  St.  Giles  Cathedral  on  the 
morning  of  the  3d  of  July,  and  in  the  afternoon  of  that 
day  in  the  Free  Church  Assembly  Hall  for  formal  or- 
ganization and  the  transaction  of  business.  This  was  a 
memorable  meeting,  as  it  brought  together  for  the  first 
time  the  scattered  forces  of  Presbyterianism,  and  gave  the 
world  an  opportunity  to  guage  their  strength.  Three 
hundred  and  thirty-three  ministers  and  elders  were 
present,  commissioned  by  forty-nine  Presbyterian 
churches,  in  twenty-five  different  countries.  Here  was  a 
clear  demonstration  of  the  Catholicity  of  Presbyterianism. 


MISSIONARY  TERRITORY  3^5 

It  has  crossed  all  national  boundaries,  waived  aside  all 
race  distinctions,  and  made  a  home  for  itself  in  the  hearts 
of  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men  in  all  parts  of  the 
globe.  Black  and  white,  red,  bronze  and  yellow,  all 
shades  of  color  from  all  climes,  sat  together  as  brethren 
in  the  Lord,  and  parts  of  one  great  denominational  con- 
fraternity. 

Good  Work  of  the  Alliance.— The  Alliance  has  held 
eight  councils— the  second  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  in  1880, 
the  third  in  Belfast,  Ireland,  1884,  the  fourth  in  London, 
1888,  the  fifth  in  Toronto,  Canada,  1892,  the  sixth  in 
Glasgow,  Scotland,  1896,  the  seventh  in  Washington, 
D.  C,  1899,  and  the  eighth  in  Liverpool,  England,  1904. 
In  these  councils  papers  have  been  read  and  discussions 
had  on  all  phases  of  Christian  doctrine,  of  church  work, 
of  ecclesiastical  administration,  of  moral  and  social  re- 
forms. These  papers  and  discussions  have  been  pub- 
lished in  handsome  volumes,  and  thus  there  has  been 
created  a  large  body  of  literature  on  a  great  variety  of  im- 
portant subjects,  many  of  them  questions  vital  to  the  wel- 
fare and  progress  of  God's  kingdom  on  earth.  This  liter- 
ature represents  the  best  thought  of  the  brotherhood  of 
churches,  composing  the  AUiance,  and  throws  a  flood 
of  light  on  the  wide  range  of  topics  which  it  covers.  It 
has  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  general  public  many 
obscure  bodies  of  Presbyterians,  and  made  us  acquainted 
with  the  social  and  religious  conditions  which  prevail  in 
countries  and  communities  that  have  been  hitherto  a 
terra  incognita. 

For  a  short  while.  Dr.  G.  W.  Blaikie,  one  of  the  clerks 
of  the  council,  edited  an  able  journal  called  the  Catholic 
Presbyterian,  which  while  not  an  official  organ  of  the 
Alliance,  worthily  represented  its  spirit  and  aims.     In  its 


386     HISTORY  OF  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCHES 

pages  there  is  stored  away  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
historical  information,  valuable  especially  to  the  student 
of  Presbyterianism,  which  it  would  be  difficult,  if  not  im- 
possible, to  find  elsewhere.  It  is  a  matter  for  profound 
regret  that  the  Catholic  Presbyterian  should  have  been 
so  short-lived.  It  was  entitled  on  its  merits  to  an  ex- 
tended career  of  usefulness.  Its  place  has  been  taken  in 
part  by  the  Quarterly  Register,  edited  by  the  Rev.  G.  D. 
Mathews,  D.  D.,  general  secretary  of  the  Alliance. 
This  serves  an  important  purpose  as  a  medium  of  com- 
munication between  the  different  sections  of  the  Alliance, 
and  in  helping  all  who  desire  to  do  so  to  keep  abreast  of 
the  movements  of  the  day  which  are  of  special  interest  to 
Presbyterians. 

Besides  the  literature  created  by  the  Alliance,  it  has 
done  good  in  other  directions.  It  has  strengthened  the 
bond  of  brotherhood  between  those  of  like  precious 
faith ;  it  has  enabled  the  strong  to  help  bear  the  burdens 
of  the  weak ;  and  has  given  a  wider  horizon  to  the  inter- 
ests and  hopes  of  all. 

The  Alliance  has  made  manifest  to  Presbyterians 
themselves  the  extent  to  which  the  principles  which  they 
hold  dear  have  been  accepted  by  Protestant  Christendom, 
and  the  part,  therefore,  which  they  may  reasonably  be 
expected  to  play  in  the  onward  march  of  God's  kingdom. 
It  is  an  interesting  historical  fact  that  after  John  Calvin 
had  arrested  the  thought  of  his  age  by  the  publication  of 
his  "  Institutes  of  the  Christian  Religion,"  and  by  his 
masterly  work  of  religious,  social  and  political  reform  in 
Geneva,  his  views  had  a  preponderating  influence  on  all 
subsequent  reforming  movements.  Not  only  so,  but 
where  his  views  came  into  contact  with  Lutheranism, 
and  the  two  systems  were  permitted  to  contest  the  ground 


MISSIONARY  TERRITORY  387 

on  equal  terms,  as  in  the  Palatinate,  Holland  and  Hun- 
gary, Calvinism,  with  its  associated  Presbyterianism,  v/on 
the  day.  Professor  Heron,  of  Belfast,  has  hardly  over- 
stated the  case  when  he  says  that  "  wherever  the  Ref- 
ormation had  free  course,  wherever  it  was  permitted  to 
shape  itself  spontaneously  after  scripture,  and  without  ex- 
ternal influence,  it  assumed  a  Presbyterian  form."  In 
the  statistical  returns,  published  by  the  last  Council  of  the 
Alliance,  we  find  mention  made  of  eighty-three  inde- 
pendent Presbyterian  churches.  These  represent  32,260 
congregations;  27,447  preachers,  and  5,137,328  com- 
municants. They  expend  annually  ^40,000,000  in  ful- 
filling the  mission  to  which  the  Lord  calls  them.  With 
his  continued  blessing  on  their  labors,  it  is  evident  that 
their  agency  will  not  be  an  unimportant  one  in  bringing 
in  the  millennial  reign  of  peace  and  righteousness,  when 
'*  all  the  earth  shall  be  filled  with  the  glory  of  Jehovah." 


Appendix 


The  following  statistical  tables  have  been 
compiled  with  the  greatest  care;  and  while 
not  entirely  complete,  nor  absolutely  per- 
fect, they  make  a  fairly  accurate  exhibit 
of  the  numerical  strength  of  the  Presby- 
terian churches  of  the  world. 


389 


390 


APPENDIX. 


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pUB    S.I9qOB9J_ 

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lUBDiunxumo^ 

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0                   u^        00            "-            "^ 

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CO 

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JOJ  S91-BpipUB3 
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00                    t^          M             rj- 

R 

(A)  European  Continent. 

1.  "  Evangelical    Church 
of  the   Augsburg  and   Hel- 
vetic Confessions  in  Austria 
—Church    of    the   Helvetic 
Confession  " 

2.  General  Synod  of  the 
Evangelical      Reformed 
Church  in  Hungary     .    .    . 

3.  Union   of  Evangelical 
Churches,  Belgium  .        .    . 

4.  Mission     Christian 
Church  of  Belgium          .    . 

5.  Synod  of  the  Reformed 
Churches  of  Denmark     .    . 

c2 

APPENDIX 


391 


•s3sod.inj  \\v 
joj  suoi^nquiuo^) 

•sndnj 

208,967 
10,000 

2,870 
760 

500 

900 

2,000 
8,660 

0 
t 

•saaoigo 

pu'B  s.iaqo'Baj, 

poilDS-qiBqqi^s 

0        0             0       00             0             0                       rJ 
ON       0             w>       s             vo           tn             .        LT) 

•^         0^               CO                                                                            ^ 
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0 

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CO 
m 

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lUBDiunuirao^ 

000             00             m            0            00        ^ 
too            0^           c^           0            roro 
NO              Los              10             0              "^^ 

;i  S^      ^           ^"^      J?      ^    § 

CO 

CO 

CO 
CO 

m 

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aoj  s9iBpipuB3 

JtO  *S91BqU9DIT^ 

^ 
N 

m          Crj                      .                    ■"^                   M                . 

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XO  'SU0DB9Q 

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w>         0                 0         OO               00                 0                    .          ^ 

vO        0             m                       CO            0                        CO 

in 

CO 

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ONOo            Ofvj           t^           in           Noo 

On       ^             v£>             '                                 N                m        ON 

0. 

CO 

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ONC^               r^Vr^                ON                ->                OOvO 
t^         Cy^                 CO                                 •                  N                  CO        vO 

00 
00 
ON 

•S9SSB13  JO  S91.I3^ 

■Xqs9J  J  JO  aaquin^ 

0        i^           vO        s                           ON            m      t^ 

t.       0 

8 

Churches. 

Brought  forward, 
6.  Reformed  Churches  of 

France . 

7.  Union     of    the     Free 
Evangelical     Churches     of 
France  

8.  Evangelical  Church  of 
Greece 

9.  Synodal  Union  of  the 
Reformed  Churches   of  the 
East  Rhine 

10.  Evangelical    Re- 
formed Church  of  the  Prov- 
ince of  Hanover 

11.  Synod     of    the     Re- 
formed   Church   of    Alsace 
and  Lorraine 

12.  Synodof  the  Walden- 
sian  Church,  Italy   .... 

13.  The  Evangelical 
Church  of  Italv   ..... 

> 

■V, 

392 


APPENDIX 


joj  suoijnqu^uo3 



•siidn^i 
poqos-qjBqq-Bg 

!>.                O                  O                  rf         O 

r?               vd                lO 
CO               i/->               t^ 

N 

CO 
CO 

•sjgDijjo 

pUB  SJ9qDB9J^ 

poqDS-q^Bqq'BS 

III         •     ■" 

vd          CO          cf 

0 

On 
M 

•S[00qos  q^Bqq^S 

i;^     8      ^      ^   ^ 

\q             to            ir> 

CO                   "^ 

vO 

1 

•saaquigj^  H^J^q^ 
}UT30iuniuuio3 

CO            o             O             mo 
CO            o             O            c»       oo 
CO             O              O              NO 

5   i   i   ""  * 

00 

ft 
00 

M 
ON 

•Xaisiuij\[  9qi 

aOJ  S3JBpipUT33 

ao  's9;Bpu90i-[ 

«     :    2     :   : 

; 

CO 

•S.19§-BU-BI\[ 
JO  'SU0DB9Q 

2         •        •       8      • 

m 

4 

•sjgpia 

CO             O              O              O         m 

a\          N           lo          CO      '^ 
q^        <1        o^ 

^                 CO               N 

cs 

g 

00 
CO 

•sa9isiuij\[ 

N                  CO                ri-               00           »0 
00                 O                 ^ 
O^             ^             "^ 

CO                   «" 

VO 

1 

•suoi;l'§9jS 
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00                    O                   ^                  w            i-i 
00                 u->              00                 t-i          hH 
q^               CO             vO 

10 

1 

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lO             rj-              O                 ,         '-' 
O              ^             m               ^ 

~ 

§, 

1 

Brought  forwa  rd, 

14.  General  Synod  of  the 
Reformed    Church    of    the 
Netherlands 

15.  Synod     of    the     Re- 
formed    Churches     of    the 
Netherlands 

16.  Classis  of  the  Old  Re- 
formed   Churches   of    Ben- 
theim  and  East  Friesland    . 

17.  Consistory  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  of  Warsaw  . 

18.  General  Assembly  of 
the  Soanish  Christian  Church 

U 
.2 

20,   Presbytery  of  the  Free 
Evangelical       Church      of 
Geneva      ..... 

11 

.2  S 

'1 

1 

1 
1 

0 

APPENDIX 


393 


•sasodanj  {{c 
.loj  suoi;nqi.i}uo3 

• 

0\              u^             00 

■rl-               rf              00 
^              ^.                0, 

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00 
0 

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l00ips-qiT3qqT3S 

00 

"^               I--.              vO 

r?                i-T                of 
OS 

LO 

00 

LO 

^' 

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\niv  sasqoxjs^L 

looqos-q^uqq^s 

in" 

On 

Tf                        0                          « 

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>0               «                ro 
tC                               00 

10 

LO 

N 

•siooqos  qi^qq^s 

1 

04 

LO 

LO 

ro              •- 

HI                   CO 

0^ 

ON 
0, 

•s.i3qui3j\[  qoanq^ 
}UT30iuniuiuo3 

in 

LO 

MD                LO              0^ 
On              CO            vo" 

1 

•Xj4sunj\[  aqi 

JOJ  S31T3pipUtJ3 
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cs 

I 

^                 •              ^ 

« 

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u-1       00 

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ro 

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pT 

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CO 

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v^                t^                0 

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1  - 

2* 

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CO                               0 

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8 

•suopv'SaaS 
•1103  JO  .laqiun^Nj 

LO 

^ 

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On              ro              0 
ro                             LO 

ON 

•S3SS13[3  .10  S3I.13} 

-Xqs3.if{  }o.i3quTn^\[ 

^ 

« 

ro 

w                                            CO 

LO 

Brought  forward, 
22.  Free       Evangelical 
Church  of  Neuchatel  .     .     . 

0 

_   <^ 
c 

13 

c 

> 

c 

>-  0 
0 

C 

.s 
6 

0 

W 

(2 

(B)  Great   Britain  and  Ire- 
land. 

25.  Synod  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  England  . 

26.  The    Scottish    Synod 
in    England    in    connection 
with  the  Church  of  Scotland, 

27.  General  Assembly  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Ireland .    . 

0 

394 


APPENDIX 


•sasodin^i  n^ 
aoj  suopnqu;uo3 

N 

0^    s:?       2 

•       CO        ^              ^ 

8 

00' 

00 

•siidnj 
jooqos-qiBqq^S 

lO               00 

CO              fo 
to            00 

0       «       n- 

tN.            fO           ON 

& 

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puB  sJsqoBax 
poqos-qiBqqBg 

LO                        «-" 

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vO 

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0 

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S       00       00 

00 

1^ 

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^uijoiuniumo^) 

t                ^ 

^                ^ 

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CV^         ON         t^ 

N          rf        00 

;  - 

00 

oo" 

vO 

•XaisiUTj^  aqi 
aoj  sajBpipuB^ 

JO  'S91T3qU301T^ 

n 

:  ?  ^ 

1/^ 

•S.I3§BUBI,\[ 
JO  'SU0DB3Q 

to             vO 
en 

:       :  ? 

•     s 

00 
N 

•saapia 

'if 

0       ^ 

•     s 

in 

•SJ31SIUIp\[ 

1      " 

ts.      CD     00           i-i       m          00 
10     00 

•suoiiB§aa§ 
-U03  JO  .isquin^ 

N                    ON 

ON 

0        M         0              •^00              On 
S         ro       «              0         M 
00^        t^ 

'it 

•S3SST3t3  ao  sauai 
-/CqsaJtJ  JO  aaquinjsj 

00        <o               >-• 

M 

U 

Brought  forward, 

28.  General  Synod  of  the 
Reformed  Presbyterian 
Church  in  Ireland    .... 

29,  Synod  of  the  Eastern 
Reformed  Presbyterian 

30.  Synod  of  the  Original 
Secession  Church  in  Ireland, 

31.  General  Assembly  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland  .    . 

32.  General  Assembly  of 
the  United  Free  Church  .   . 

2^.  General  Assembly  of 
the    Free    Church    of  Scot- 

35.  Synod     of    the     Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church 
in  Scotland 

0 

APPENDIX 


395 


•sasodjnj  \\r; 
joj  suoiinqia;uo3 

un       «                  O 

ON                  oo 

8                ^ 

<o 

oo" 

■siidn^j 
poqDS-qi^qqT3S 

1   ""        1 

VO 

00 
CO 

fO 

VO 

00 

m 

CO 

•SJ901JJO 

puB  sa9qoB9X 
poqDS-qi^qqBS 

ON                      00 

N 
N 

•spoqos  i^T^qq^s 

N           N                         O 

00 

00 

VO 

•sJ9qui9i\[  il9anq3 
^UB0iunuimo3 

00          "-I                      00 
r^       vo                   t^ 

«       8       § 

1^                0                  vo 

?f        2^        ^^ 

VO 
VO 

JOJ  S91T3pipUB3 

JO  *s9iv;pa9Diq 

i; 

VO 

VO 

CO 

•saaSBUBiAi 

JO  •SUO0B9Q 

ro        Tt                     UI 
00          t^                      u-> 
t^        w                     00 

ei                           ^ 

00 

N 

VO 

•sagpia 

CO 

•              ^ 

C^ 

•Si91SlUII^ 

N         vO                      »^ 

10 

°                   ^                 CO 

0 

•suopB^aaS 
-uo3  JO  i9quinj^ 

vO                                  fO 

1 

S        •       -2 

$^ 

•S9SST313  XO  S9U9J 

-Xqs9J<l  JO  J9quin^ 

M 

f 

"^ 

''J- 

1 

S 

Brought  forward, 

36.  Synod  of  the  United 
Original  Secession  Church, 

37.  General  Assembly  of 
the  Calvinistic  Methodist  or 
Presbyterian      Church      of 
Wales 

0 

Si 

(C)  Asia. 

38.  Synod     of    the     Re- 
formed Church  in  the  Dutch 

(U    1) 

40.  Synod  of  the   Syrian 
Evangelical       Church      of 
Persia 

-^^ 

§ 

^ 

S 

^ 

396 


APPENDIX 


•sasodjnj  wb 
ioj  suopnquiuo^ 

•siidnj 
poqDS-qiBqq^S 

oo 

CO 

On 

•saaoyjo 
puB  saaqoBaj^ 

poqos-qjBqq^S 

N 
N 

1-1 

•siooiiDs  u^T^'qq^s 

s 

On 

2" 

•Siaqui3i,\[  qojnq3 
}UB0iunuiuio3 

00 

—         00 

^    2 

vd         « 

:l| 

-* 

•Xj^siuii\[  9q; 
aoj  s3}BpipuB3 
JO  'sa^^ijusoi^ 

to 

.; 

% 

•s-iaStJuxj]^ 

JO  'SUO0-B3Q 

O 
N 

g 

N 

M 

00 

•sjapia 

^ 

.    ON 

2 

•SJ35SIUIJ\[ 

o 

00 

eg 

VO 

VO 

•suotj^Ssjg 
-uoj  JO  jaquin^ 

o 

•     ^  g. 

0 

a 

•S9SSBl[^  JO  S3IJ3; 

-Xqs3J(j  JO  jaquinj^ 

^ 

vO 

." 

= 

Churches. 

Brought  forward, 

41.  Synod  of  the  Native 

Presbyterian      Church      of 

■  0 

•  X. 
0 

a  ^ 

^^   c 

•    3 

u 
•n 

Si 

c 

44,  Mission     Council    of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Korea 

0  ^ 
c   - 

CO  17 

5- 

OS 

.s 

n 

'  '>^  c 

y 

■   in    C 

^    > 

PhCA 

CJ 
S 

0 

.s 

.2 

a; 

a 

e2 

APPENDIX 


397 


•sasodjnj  \\v: 
aoj  suopnqi.quo3 


•s[idnj 


•sJ3Diyo 

puB  S.IDqOXIOJ^ 
poqos-qiBqqtJS 


SI 


•spoqDS  qi^qqT^S 


^ 


JO  'SUO0B3Q 


t^         o 


•saspia 


•s.^^^sIUIX^i 


•suopijSaaS 
■U03  JO  jaqiun^s^ 


•S3SS1JI3  .10  S3U3^ 

yCqs3.ij[  JO  .laqum^si 


4J  .2 

O 


-S       •    3  •  "^    O 

m"^   o  ^   i-   o 
1^  ^    c^    O         >    O  ^ 


•5  <-> 


t„     3       .  <*-,    t/i     ^  CO    (u 

^  ^        o  .i2   ci  _^  ^ 

'^         13  -^  J-  -r,  5 
.    o        .  o     ^  Ji  ^ 

«     ^1)     ■  ,?r'  oj  _e:  "^  H-( 

"^    d  ^  o  --*  ^  .9  <^"  ii  "i  "^  ii 

®     (^u    p^.s    Q^    oa    p^o 


-G  r*"     .    >:    0)3    .    r;    .J 


398 


APPENDIX 


•sasodjnj  ip 
aoj  suopnqu}uo3 

. 

• 

M 
fO 
to 

ro 

•sjidnj 
poqos-qi^qqBS 

1    -   : 

0 

CO 
00 

00 

10 

00 

•saaoiyo 

puB  Sa3qDB3JL 
poqos-q^Bqq^s 

to              CO 

5 

00 

00 

•siooqos  q^Bqq^S 

1     • 

1 

VO 

fO 

•S-iaqiuajAj  qDinq3 
^uB0iunuiuio3 

1    ■ 

6 

M 

ro 

•Xaisiuij^  aqi 
aoj  s3iBpipuB3 
JO  'sajBi^uaDiT^ 

fO 

CO 

•saaSBUBjAi 

ao  'SUO0B3Q 

0              "^ 

ci 

•saapia 

CO             CO 

On 

00 
0 

•saaistuijAi 

0               00 

t       ' 

•suoijBSaaS 
-U03  JO  aaquin^ 

t^ 

00 

00 

•S3SSB[3  JO  S91J3} 

.Xqs9J(j  JO  jaquin^ 

^J     t- 

g^ 

t 

Brought  fo7'ward, 

56.  General  Assembly  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
South  Africa 

57.  Synod   of  the    U.  F. 

1% 

s 

*> 
0 

•  >^  . 

\^% 

i 

a 
0 

H 

(E)  North  America. 

60,  General  Assembly  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Canada 

61.  Synod  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  Canada  in 
connection  with  the  Church 

1 
k 

^ 

E 
^ 

APPENDIX 


399 


•S9sod.inj  we 
aoj  suoiiuqi.nuo3 

N 

ro 

ro 
<^ 

ro               Tt              00                u-> 
On              vO                LO              t^ 
0>               C^                On             vO 

^    vg    ^^          : 

CO 

•siidnj 
poqos-qi^qqBS 

00 
ro 
m 

CO 

00 

vO                ^                 CN               0 
^              vO                ro               to 
^              vO                On 

vO                t^               0 
On              "-I               '-' 

CO 

•sasDyiJO 

pUB  SJ9qD139J^ 

[OoqDS-qiTJqqBg 

c2           S              .            g              . 

00 

i 

•siooqos  q^^qq^S 

t^              t^                 .               CO                . 

00            «i             ^ 

CO 

•sa9qui9p;[  qoanio 
luBDiunuimo3 

M 

r^           M            CO           0 
r>,            "<;*•'-'             0 

^            -.            ^^            »- 
t->.              u->              10 

vO                CO             00 
ON'-' 

1 

•Xa;siuii\[  9  m 
aoj  s9iBpipuB3 

JO  'S9}T3piI90iq 

; 

m            N             On              . 

•sa92^juB];^ 

XO  'SU03B9Q 

eg;      8      §-      ^       • 

^               O"              00               r?                                   [ 

CO 

hi 

CO 

•S.l9pia 

lO                    IT)                    N                      0 

rl-                N                00                 M 
^               CO               « 

o^          0;          0" 

0 

10 

•sa9;siut],\[ 

CO 

vo                t^               0                  »i 
0                  '-I                  •-I 
t^                ^               0 

tC           hT            i-T 

1 

•suoi;B29aS 
-U03  JO  agquinjsj^ 

00 

N              -^             0              fO 
00^            0^            Oj 
tC           CO           cT 

10 

•S9SS-B[3  JO  S9U9; 

-Xqs9.i(j  JO  J9qmnj^ 

On               N               00                >-< 
CO              00                 w 

On 

Brought  forward, 

62.  Synod   of  the    Mara- 

time  Provinces  in  connection 

the     Presbyterian     Church, 
U.  S.  A 

64.  General  Assembly  of 
the     Presbyterian     Church, 
U.  S 

65.  General  Assembly  of 
the      Cumberland      Presby- 
terian Church 

66.  Presbytery  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church 
of  Pittsburg  and  Ontario.    . 

67.  General  Assembly  of 
the     Colored     Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church  .    .    . 

1 

400 


APPENDIX 


•s9Sodjnj  we 
joj  suoijnqLi;uo3 

M                0                «               00 
M                0                "*               Lr> 
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68.  General  Assembly  of 
the      Welsh      Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  U.  S.  A.   .    . 

69.  General  Assembly  of 
the      United      Presbyterian 
Church  of  North  America  . 

70.  Synod    of    the    Asso- 
ciate  Reformed  Church   of 
the  South 

71.  General  Synod  of  the 
Reformed     Presbyterian 
Church  in  America.     .    .    . 

72.  Synod     of     the     Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church 
in  America 

73.  General  Synod  of  the 
Reformed  Church  in  Amer- 

ica 

74.  Synod  of  the  Presby- 

1 
0 

APPENDIX 


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Churches. 

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7  5 .  Synod  of  the  Christian 

Reformed  Church  in  Amer- 

76.  General  Synod  of  the 
Reformed    Church    in    the 
United  States 

d 

(F)  South  America. 

77.  Synod  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  Brazil 

78.  Presbytery  of  British 

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(G)  West  India  Islands. 

80.  Synod  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Jamaica   . 

0 

402 


APPENDIX 


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Australia 

82.  General  Assembly  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
New  Zealand 

83.  Missionary  Synod  of 
the  New  Hebrides  .... 

APPENDIX 


403 


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Index 


Abbe  du  Chayla,  64 
Abernethey,  Rev.  John,  197,  238 
Act  of  Uniformity,  206,  207,  219 
Adopting  Act,  229 
Adrian  Van  der  Werf,  89 
Albigenses,  character  and  fate  of, 

34,  35 
Albret,  Jeanne  d',  present  at  Synod 

of  Rochelle,  43  ;  letter  from,  50 
Alliance  of  the  Reformed  Churches, 

Alva,  Duke  of,  85,  88 
Anabaptists,  37,  77,  96 
Andrews,  Rev.  Jedediah,  236 
Antoine  of  Navarre,  45 
Antwerp,  73  ;    convention  at,  84 ; 

cathedral  looted,  85 
Aquinas,  Thomas,  104 
Arminius,  Rev.  James,  98,  99 
Asbury,  Rev.  Francis,  317 

Ballarat,  gold  discovered  at,  361 

Barnes,  Rev.  Albert,  257 

Basel,  Council  of,  105 

Beaton,  Cardinal,  128,  129 

Beecher,  Rev.  Lyman,  256 

"  Beggars,"  the,  83 

Belfast  Society,  197,  198 

Beza,  Theodore,  rector  of  Geneva 

Academy,  27  ;  moderator  Synod 

of  Rochelle,  43  ;  at  the  Colloquy 

of  Poissy,  47,  208 
Black  acts,  139 
Black  oath,  178 
Blair,  Rev,  Robert,  175 
Boehm,  Martin,  318 
Boehm,  Rev.  Peter,  314 
Bothwell  Bridge,  158,  188 
Bothwell,  Earl  of,  135 
Bourbons,  house  of,  41 
Boyne,  Battle  of,  193 
Breckenridge,  Rev.  R.  J.,  279,  280 
Brief  statement   of  the   Reformed 

Faith,  265 


Briggs,  Prof.  C.  A.,  263 
Burns,  Rev.  T.,  pioneer   in   New 
Zealand,  365 

Calas,  Jean,  67 

Calixtines,  104 

Calvin,  John,  restorer  of  Presby- 
terianism,  il  ;  arrives  in  Geneva, 
15;  views  on  Church  and  state, 
17,  23;  on  rights  of  conscience, 
25;  publishes  institutes,  37,  130, 
386 

Cameron,  Rev.  Richard,  168,  325, 

337 
Camisards,  64 
Carstairs,  William,  160 
Cartwright,  Rev.  Thomas,  207 
Catholic  League,  52,  53 
Catholic  Presbyterian,  385 
Cavalier,  John,  65 
Charles   I,  of  England,    143,    145, 

150,  179 
Charles  II,  of  England,  151,   153, 

218 
Charles  V,  Emperor,  74,  75,  76,  78 
Charles  IX,  of  France,  45,  52 
Charles,  Rev.  Thomas,  of  Bala,  228 
Chalmers,  Rev.  Thomas,  164 
Christian  Reformed  Church,  102 
"  Clergy  Reserves,"  349 
Cocceius,  Professor  John,  100 
Coligny,  Admiral,  41,  50,  373 
Convention  of  Leith,  136 
Cooke,  Rev.  Henry,  201 
«  Council  of  Blood,"  86 
Court,  Antome,  66,  67 
Court  of  High  Commission,  156,  21 1 
Craighead,    Rev.   Alexander,    244, 

250,  327 
Cromwell,   Oliver,    150,    151,    184, 

217 
Cross,  Rev.  Robert,  242 
Cumberland  University,  300 
Cuthbertson,  Rev.  John,  328 


405 


4o6 


INDEX 


Darnley,  Lord,  113 
Davies,  Samuel,  222,  244 
Declaration   and   Testimony,    278, 

279,  280 
Derry,  Siege  of,  191 
Devay,  Matthias,  135 
Disruption  of  Church  of  Scotland, 

165,  170,  346,  351 
Don  John  of  Austria,  93 
Dort,   Synod   of,   in    1574,   95  ;  in 

1578.  96;  in  1618,  99 
Dragonnades,  the,  60 
Duff,  Alexander,  165,  377 
Duke  of  Parma,  93,  94 

Eagle  Wing,  177 
Echlin,  Bishop  of  Down,  174,  177 
Edgar,  Rev.  John,  202 
Edwards,  Jonathan,  241 
Emden,  Synod  of,  95 
"  Engagement,"  the,  183 
Episcopacy,    evolution    of,    3 ;    re- 
tained in  England,  6 
Erskine,  Ebenezer,  162,  326,  337 
Esch,  John,  76 

Farel,  Wm.,  preacher  in  Geneva, 
14;  labors  in  Neuchatel,  30,  119 

Ferdinand,  King  of  Bohemia,  107, 
108 

Five  Articles  of  Perth,  142,  146 

Forbes,  Rev.  James,  founder  of 
Church  in  Victoria,  361 

Francis  I,  attitude  toward  Reforma- 
tion, 36,  37 

Francis  II  comes  to  throne,  40 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  321 

Free  Evangelical  Church  of  Geneva, 

30 

Frederick  V,  Elector  of  the  Palati- 
nate, 108,  109 
Frelinghuysen,  Jacob,  241 
French  Catholics  in  Canada,  354 
French  Revolution,  the,  68 

Geddes,  Janet,  144 
Geddie,  Rev.  James,  191 
General  Assembly,  the  first,  253 
General    Assembly    of    1 86 1,    270, 

271 
Geneva,  government  of,  16;  church 


ordinances  of,    18 ;  academy  of, 

27  ;  aids  Reformation  in  France, 

39 
Gillespie,  Thomas,  163 
Glendinning,  Rev.  James,  175 
Gormarus,  99 
Gordon,  Rev.  James,  191 
Gordon,  George  N.,  martyr  of  Er- 

romanga,  356 
Governor  Gooch,  244 
Great  Awakening,  241,  291,  307 
Guise,  Francis,  Duke  of,  40 
Guy  de  Bres,  94 

PIaldam,   Robert,  labors  in  Ge- 
neva, 28 
Hamilton,  Patrick,  127,  128 
Harris,  Howell,  227 
Heads  of  agreement,  221 
Henderson,  Alexander,  146 
Henry    II    comes   to    throne,    39 ; 

killed,  40 
Henry  III  becomes  king,  52;  as- 
sassinated, 53 
Henry,  King  of  Navarre,  52  ;  heir 
to   throne,   53 ;    renounces   Prot- 
estantism and  becomes  king,  55  ; 
character,  55  ;  assassination,  57, 
134 
Henry,  Rev.  George,  348 
Hodge,  Rev.  Charles,  D.  D.,  272 
Huguenots,  numbers  of,  44  ;  origin 
of  name,  44;  leave   France,  61, 

63 
Huss,  John,  104 

ICONOCLASM,  85 

Ignatius,  on  the  Church  of  second 

century,  2 
Irish  Rebellion,  179 

James  VI,  of  Scotland,  I,  of  Eng- 
land, 138,  140,  141 

James  II,  of  England,  158,  188 

Jerome,  his  testimony  to  early  pres- 
bytery, 4 

Jerome  of  Prague,  104 

Jones,  Griffith,  226 

Joseph  II,  Emperor,  no,  116 

"  Judicial  Testimony,"  338 


INDEX 


407 


"  Killing  Time,"  158 
King's  College,  Windsor,  344  • 
Knox,   John,    128,    129,    130,    131, 

136 

Knox  College,  founding  of,  352 
Kruger,  Oom  Paul,  370 
Kuyper,  Dr.,  103 

Lafayette,  Marquis  de,  67 

La  Ferriere,  baptism  of  his  child, 
40 

Lambert,  Francis,  9 

Lang,  Rev.  John  Dunmore,  pioneer 
in  New  South  Wales,  358 

Languedoc,  peasants  of  turn 
prophets,  64 

La  Riviere,  pastor  of  Reformed 
Church  of  France,  40 

Laud,  William,  Archbishop,  143, 
213 

Leyden,  Siege  of,  88-91  ;  univer- 
sity of,  98 

Lightfoot,  Bishop,  on  rise  of  Epis- 
copacy, 4 

Lindley,  Rev.  David,  missionary. 
South  Africa,  369 

Livingston,  Rev.  John  H.,  308,310 

Livingstone,  Rev.  David,  mission- 
ary, 371 

Log  College,  247 

Long  Parliament,  147 

Louis  XIII,  of  France,  57 

Louis  XIV,  of  France,  57,  31  j 

I^uther,  on  church  government,  7 

Lutherans,  no  uniformity  in  church 
polity,  8 

Mackemie,  Francis,  196,  235,  236 
Margaret  of  Savoy,  76 
Margaret,  Duchess  of  Parma,  80,  82 
Maria,  Queen  of  Hungary,  76 
Mary  of  Guise,  Queen  Regent,  130, 

132 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  134,  136 
Mazarin,  Cardinal,  58 
McAdow,  Samuel,  289,  296 
McCulloch,  Rev.  Thomas,  344 
McGready,  James,  289,  290 
McGiffert,    Professor    A.    C,    263, 

264 
McKay,  G.  L,,  missionary  in  For- 
mosa, 356 


Mecklenburg  declaration,  245,  252 
Medici,   Catharine   de',  married   to 

Henry  II,  39  ;  her  policy,  41 
Megapolensis,  Rev.  John,  304 
Melville,  Andrew,  138,  140 
Menendez,  Pedro,  341 
Mercersburg  controversy,  322 
Michaelis,  Jonas,  303 
Milton,  John,  183 
Minuit,  Peter,  303 
Monod,  Frederick,  71 
Monro,  General,  180 
Motley,  John,  79,  89 
Muhlenberg,  Rev.  Melchoir,  316 
Murray,  Rev.  Andrew,  pioneer  in 

Orange  Free  State,  371 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  56;  edict  re- 
voked, 62 

Napoleon,  71 

National  Covenant,  145,  150,  154, 
178 

Neuchatel,  reformed  under  Farel, 
30;  Evangelical  Church  of,  31 

Nevin,  Dr.  J.  W.,  322 

New  Brunswick,  Theological  Sem- 
inary, 310 

New  England  Theology,  256 

New  Netherlands,  301-304 

Otterbein,  Rev.  Phillip  Will- 
iam, 317 

Palmer,  Rev.  B,  M.,  D.  D.,  274 

Pastorius,  Francis  Daniel,  313 

Patton,  Rev.  Isaac,  200 

"  Peace  Commission,"  323 

Philip  II,  78,  79,  80,  82 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  233 

Plan  of  union,  254-260 

Poissy,  colloquy  of,  46 

Presbyterianism,  definition  of,  1,2 

Presbytery,  Apostolic,  i  ;  gave 
place  to  Episcopacy,  4 ;  influ- 
ence of,  12 

Prophesyings,  209 

Quarterly  associations,  229,  230 

Quarterly  Register,  386 

Queen's  College,  founding  of,  350 


4o8 


INDEX 


Regium  Donuni,  203 

Rehoboth  Church,  234 

Reign  of  Tenor,  70 

Requesens,  88 

Revolution  settlement,  160,  326 

Richelieu,  Cardinal,  57 

Rochelle,  Synod  of,  43  ;  siege    of, 

52  ;  surrender,  57 
Robertson,     William     (principal), 

163 
Ross,  Rev.  John,  pioneer  in  Korea, 

380 
Rowland,  Rev,  Daniel,  228 
Rullion  Green,  Battle  of,  156 
Rutgers,  Colonel  Henry,  310 

Salter's  Hall,  222 

Schaff,  Philip,  322 

Schlatter,  Rev.  Michael,  314,  316 

Servetus,  conviction  and  execution, 

24 
Sharp,  James,  157 
Smith,  Henry  Preserved,  263 
Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  148, 

154,  182 
"Spanish  Fury,"  the,  91 
Spring  resolutions,  272 
States  General,  the,  69 
St.  Bartholomew,  Massacre  of,  50 
St.   Germain,  Edict  of,  47  ;  Treaty 

of,  49 
Stuyvesant,  Peter,  304,  305 
Swing,  Davis,  263 

Taborites,  105 
Taylor,  Jeremy,  185 
Tennent,  Gilbert,  222,  241,  242 
Tennent,  William,  247 
Temperance  reform,  202 
Test  Act,  195 


Thompson,  Andrew,  164 
Thornwell,  James  Henley,  D.  D., 

274,  276 
Toleration  Act,  220 
Tyrconnel,  Earl  of,  189,  190 

Unitas  Fratrum,  106 

Union  of  Synods  in  Canada,  353 

United  Brethren,  317,  318 

United  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 

Church,  260,  277 
Urumiah,  seat  of  mission  work  in 

Persia,  381 
Usher,  Archbishop,  174,  177 
Utrecht,  Treaty  of,  94 

Vassy,  Massacre  of,  48 

Vaud,  reformed  under  Pierre  Viret, 

32 
«'  Venerable  Company,"  22,  29 
Villars,  Marshal,  65 
Viret,  Pierre,  32 
Voes,  Henry,  76 
Voltaire,  67 

W^ALDO,  Peter,  119 
Wandsworth,  Presbytery  of,  208 
Wentworth,  Charles,  143,  177,  178 
Wesel,  Synod  of,  95 
Westminster  Assembly,  148,  214 
Whitefield,  George,  in  Wales,  228; 

in  America,  241 
William  the  Silent,  86,  87,  92,  96 
William  1,  of  Holland,  loi 
William  of  Orange-,  159,  192,  193 
Wishart,  George,  128 
Witherspoon,  Rev.  John,  252 

ZiSKA,  patriot  of  Bohemia,  105 
Zwingli,  on  Church  and  state,  lo 


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